METHODS

Background

[01] The present disclosure relates to solar powered pyrolysis systems and methods. More particularly, it relates to solar thermochemical methane pyrolysis systems and methods with carbon particle removal.

[02] Methane pyrolysis, also known as methane cracking, is the high-temperature breakdown of methane into hydrogen gas and solid carbon. There are different heating methods to achieve methane pyrolysis, such as fossil fuel combustion, electrification, or concentrated solar energy. Methane dissociates into hydrogen and carbon at temperatures of about 1000 °C - 1500 °C. Differentiation revolves about the type of reactor used in the process.

[03] Methane pyrolysis via utilization of solar energy is an emission free process for hydrogen and carbon production. This process is also referred to as “solar cracking” to imply direct thermal decomposition of methane into hydrogen gas and solid carbon without the presence of oxidizing elements in the reactor. In a solar thermochemical methane pyrolysis reactor, methane is heated to the dissociation temperature by solar radiation and decomposed into hydrogen and solid carbon via endothermic reaction that requires 76 kJ heat per mole of methane at 298 K (i.e., CH4 2H2 + C (AH = +76 kJ/mol)). Because there is no air or oxidizing medium entry into the solar reaction chamber, there is no production of carbo-oxygen or nitro-oxygen based emissions.

[04] The size of carbon particles produced by solar thermochemical methane pyrolysis can range from 20 to 40 nm. The quality of the so-generated carbon may be comparable to Shawinigan™ carbon black, which is considered the world standard for high quality specialty carbon black. Given these results, solar cracking can be considered as a viable alternative production method for carbon black. However, accumulative deposition of the carbon particles and/or agglomeration of the carbon particles within the reactor can impede operation. In particular, the reactor exit port can be clogged by carbon particles due to agglomeration and deposition. When the reactor outlet is blocked by carbon particles, there can be no outflow of the products potentially leading to excessively high pressure build up. This problem hinders the continuity and scalability of the process.

Summary

[05] The inventors of the present disclosure recognized that a need exists for systems and methods for solar powered methane pyrolysis (and/or pyrolysis processes for other hydrocarbons regardless of the heating methods) that remove deposited carbon particles from the solar reactor, for example at the reactor’s exhaust and inner walls. Some systems and methods of the present disclosure may provide an option for continuous operation of the reactor by reducing the deposition at the reactor’s exhaust and/or hindering the performance due to carbon buildup within the reactor.

[06] Aspects of the present disclosure are directed to a solar thermochemical pyrolysis system including a reactor housing, window, an exhaust conduit, a solid particle collection conduit, and one or both of an exhaust cleaning mechanism and a chamber cleaning mechanism. The reactor housing defines a reaction chamber. The window is mounted to an aperture of the reactor housing for allowing solar energy into the reaction chamber. The exhaust conduit is fluidly open to and extends from the reaction chamber for exhausting products generated by a pyrolysis process. The collection conduit is fluidly open to and extends from the reaction chamber for directing solid particles generated by a pyrolysis process. The exhaust cleaning mechanism is associated with the exhaust conduit. The exhaust cleaning mechanism includes a cleaning capsule disposed within the exhaust conduit and an actuator located outside of the exhaust conduit and operable to propel the cleaning capsule along the exhaust conduit to remove deposited particles. In some embodiments, the cleaning capsule is formed of a ferromagnetic material, and the actuator includes electrical wiring wound about the exhaust conduit. The chamber cleaning mechanism includes a scraper body disposed within the reaction chamber for removing deposited particles from a wall of the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the cleaning mechanism includes a ferromagnetic rotor body and a stator. The ferromagnetic rotor body is disposed within the collection conduit and is connected to the scraper body. The stator is disposed outside of the collection conduit and operable to cause rotation of the rotor body within the collection conduit. In some embodiments, the systems of the present disclosure are configured to perform a methane pyrolysis process at temperatures of at least 1200 °C, and can incorporate a hybrid design in which induction heating supplements solar radiation heating.

Brief Description of the Drawings

[07] FIG. 1 schematically illustrates portions of a solar pyrolysis system in accordance with principles of the present disclosure;

[08] FIG. 2 is a simplified cross-sectional view of a portion of the system of FIG. 1 and illustrating an exhaust cleaning mechanism in accordance with principles of the present disclosure;

[09] FIG. 3 A is a simplified perspective view of a cleaning capsule useful with the exhaust cleaning mechanism of FIG. 2;

[10] FIG. 3B is a top view of the cleaning capsule of FIG. 3 A;

[11] FIG. 4 is a simplified cross-sectional view of a portion of the system of FIG. 1 and illustrating a chamber cleaning mechanism in accordance with principles of the present disclosure;

[12] FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a solar pyrolysis system in accordance with principles of the present disclosure; and

[13] FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the system of FIG. 5. Detailed Description

[14] The present disclosure relates to systems and methods for solar cracking or pyrolysis of a natural gas such as methane or gas mainly composed of methane. In general terms, natural gas solar cracking systems include a reactor housing a reaction chamber; sunlight/solar energy passes into the reaction chamber though a window. Examples of solar cracking systems are described, for example, in Ozalp et al., An Overview of Direct Carbon Fuel Cells and Their Promising Potential on Coupling with Thermochemical Carbon Production, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 162, pp. 112427-112449 (2022); Rutten et al., Design, Manufacturing and Experimental Testing of a Self-Cleaning Exit Port Mechanism for a Solar Reactor, ASTFE 4 ^th Thermal and Fluids Engineering Conference TFEC-2019-2856, pp. 1-16 (2019), the entire teachings of each of which are incorporated herein by reference. During operation of these and similar systems, carbon particles are generated within the reaction chamber and deposit inside the reaction chamber and the reactor’s exhaust. With this in mind, some aspects of the present disclosure relate to solar cracking or pyrolysis systems and methods with self-cleaning mechanism(s) operable to remove carbon particles.

[15] FIG. 1 is a simplified representation of a pyrolysis or solar cracking system 20 in accordance with principles of the present disclosure. The system 20 is operable to perform a methane pyrolysis process, and in some embodiments is well-suited for other pyrolysis processes. In the descriptions below, where specific reference is made to methane, it will be understood that a gas other than methane can be processed. The system 20 includes a reactor housing 30 defining a reaction chamber 32. An aperture 34 is defined at a front of the reactor housing 30 that is open to the chamber 32. A window 36 is assembled to, and extends across, the aperture 34, and generally includes a quartz window. Various ports openings to the chamber 32 are provided, including one or more gas inlet ports 40, a catalyst inlet port 42, an exhaust or exit port 44 and a collection port 46. In general terms, operation of the system 20 to perform methane pyrolysis entails injecting methane into the chamber 32 via the gas inlet port(s) 40, and injecting a catalyst (e.g., pure carbon/carbon black) into the chamber 32 via the catalyst inlet 42 as needed. The methane is heated to its dissociation temperature within the chamber 32 and decomposes into hydrogen and solid carbon. Heating within the chamber 32 is facilitated by solar energy directed into the chamber 32 via the window 36 (e.g., an optional solar concentrator unit (not shown), that can be assembled to or provided apart from the housing 30 outside of the window 36, can be arranged to concentrate or focus solar energy directed to the window 36). In some embodiments, the system 20 can have a hybrid-type configuration, and further includes induction heating features (not shown, but described in greater detail below), such as a graphite induction furnace carried within the reactor housing 30, to assist in generating the high temperature process heat. The hydrogen gas is removed or exhausted from the chamber 32 via an exhaust conduit 50 that is otherwise open to and extends from the exit port 44. Carbon particles are removed from the chamber 32 via a collection conduit 52 that is otherwise open to and extends from the collection port 46. Gaseous substances other than methane can be subjected to a pyrolysis process using the system 20 that may result in an exhaust gas other than hydrogen and/or solid particles other than carbon.

[16J For ease of understanding, the simplified representation of FIG. 1 omits various features likely necessary for viable solar cracking operations (e.g., insulation, cooling, etc.) that are otherwise supported by, for example, the views of FIGS. 5 and 6. Further, the systems of the present disclosure can include other features. For example, the chamber 32 can have the spherical shape reflected by FIG. 1; the spherical shape helps to reflect incoming wavelengths within the reactor chamber 32, limiting losses from being reflected straight back out the aperture 34 as with a cylinder or other reactor chamber shapes with flat backs. Other optional features are described in greater detail below. Regardless, in some embodiments, the system 20 includes one or both of an exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 and a chamber cleaning mechanism 62. As described in greater detail below, the cleaning mechanisms 60, 62 are configured to clean/remove and collect carbon particles (e.g., carbon black particles) that are generated during operation of the system 20.

[17] The exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 can assume various forms, and is generally configured for assembly to, and operation within, at least a portion of the exhaust conduit 50. As a point of reference, while FIG. 1 generally reflects the exhaust conduit 50 as being a homogenous tube, it will be understood that the exhaust conduit 50 can be defined or generated in various manners (e.g., aperture(s) formed through a thickness of components of the housing 30 (such as insulation bodies) and one or more pipes or tubes open to and extending from the housing 30). Carbon particles entrained in the hydrogen gas exiting the reactor chamber 32 via the exit port 44 have a natural tendency or affinity to deposit or collect along an interior surface 70 of the exhaust conduit 50. The exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 operates to remove the carbon particles from the interior surface 70 of the exhaust conduit 50, avoiding potential clogging of the exhaust conduit 50 with carbon particles over time. One embodiment of the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 is shown in greater detail in FIG. 2, along with a portion of the exhaust conduit 50. As a point of reference, a location of the exit port 44 is referenced generally in FIG. 2. Commensurate with the descriptions above, the exhaust conduit 50 is open to and extends from the exit port 44 (and thus the reactor chamber 32 (FIG. 1)); the exhaust conduit 50 terminates at a floor 72 opposite the exit port 44; an outlet opening 74 is defined at or in the floor 72. The exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 includes a cleaning capsule 80, a track 82, wiring 84, and a seat 86. Details on the various components are provided below. In general terms, the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 operates similar to a solenoid, employing an induced electromagnetic field to propel the cleaning capsule 80 along the track 82, up through the exhaust conduit 50 to physically remove carbon deposits from the interior surface 70.

[18] The cleaning capsule 80 is formed of an electromagnetic material such as iron, ferrite or other highly permeable material(s) or composite. With additional reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B, the cleaning capsule 80 can include or define a ring body 90 and provides features for interfacing with the track 82. The ring body 90 is sized and shaped to be received within the exhaust conduit 50, and defines an internal passage 92. As a point of reference, a size or outer diameter of the ring body 90 is shown as being slightly less than an inner diameter of the exhaust conduit 50 (i.e., a diameter of the interior surface 70) in FIG. 2 for ease of understanding. In some embodiments, an outer diameter of the ring body 90 can approximate the inner diameter of the exhaust conduit 50 to provide an enhanced scraping effect along the inner surface 70. In some non-limiting examples, the track interfacing features of the cleaning capsule 80 can include two or more posts 94 that project radially outwardly from an exterior of the ring body 90. As described in greater detail below, the posts 94 are sized to be slidably received within the track 82. Other track interface features can be provided with the cleaning capsule 80 that may or may not include the posts 94.

[19] With specific reference to FIG. 2, the track 82 is formed along the interior surface 70 of the exhaust conduit 50, and generally has the spiral or helical shape shown in extension from the floor 72 toward the exit port 44. The track 82 and the interface features of the cleaning capsule 80 have a complementary construction. For example, with embodiments in which the interface features of the cleaning capsule 80 are or includes the posts 94, the track 82 can be one or more continuous helical grooves formed into interior surface 70 of the exhaust conduit 50 that are each sized and shaped to slidably capture a corresponding one of the posts 94. In other embodiments the interface configuration can be reversed, with the cleaning capsule 80 forming one or more grooves or slots along an exterior of the ring body 90 (e.g., the posts 94 are omitted), and the track 82 provided as a helical or spiral-shaped member(s) projecting inwardly from the interior surface 70 of the exhaust conduit 50. Regardless, the complementary design of the cleaning capsule 80 interface feature(s) and the track 82 is such that when the cleaning capsule 80 is subjected to a lifting force (from the arrangement of FIG. 2), the cleaning capsule 80 will rotate relative to the exhaust conduit 50 (in addition to moving vertically) via interface with the track 82. [20] The wiring 84 can assume various forms and is wound or coiled about the exhaust conduit 50 in a manner appropriate for generating a magnetic field when energized. In some embodiments, the wiring 84 can be insulated electrical wire that is wrapped about an exterior surface of the exhaust conduit 50. In other embodiments, the wiring 84 can be formed or embedded within a thickness of the exhaust conduit 50. Regardless, the wiring 84 is electrically connected to a power supply (not shown) that is operable to apply an electrical current to the wiring 84.

[21] The seat 86 is formed or defined at the floor 72 of the exhaust conduit 50, and is generally sized and shaped to receive the cleaning capsule 80. More particularly, the seat 86 can have a flange or ring-like shape defining a central passageway 100 that is open to the outlet opening 74. The seat 86 is sized and shaped in accordance with the size and shape of the internal passage 92 of the cleaning capsule 80. More particularly, an outer diameter of the seat 86 approximates a dimeter of the internal passage 92. Further, a height of the seat 86 (i.e., upward extension from the trailing end 72) approximates, or is slightly greater than, a height of the cleaning capsule 80. With this construction, as the cleaning capsule 80 is lowered from the arrangement of FIG. 2 to a home or rest position at or near the floor 72, the seat 86 passes into the internal passage 92, acting to dislodge or scrape accumulated carbon particles from an interior of the ring body 90 (labeled in FIGS. 3A and 3B).

[22] Various features can be provided for collecting carbon particles (and other debris) dislodged from the exhaust conduit 50 during operation of the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60. In some embodiments, a down tube 110 extends vertically downwardly from the exhaust conduit 50 to a bottom end 112. The down tube 110 defines a flow passage 114 that is open to the outlet opening 74 and at the bottom end 112. A particle collection canister 116 is provided that defines a reservoir 118. The particle collection canister 116 is configured to be releasably secured to the down tube 110 at the bottom end 112 (e g., threaded connection) to the bottom end 112. In the mounted arrangement of FIG. 2, the reservoir 118 is open to the flow passage 114. An exhaust tube 120 is assembled to, or integrally formed with, the down tube 110, and defines an exhaust passage 122. The exhaust tube 120 extends away from the down tube 110, and can be fluidly connected to other components appropriate for collecting gas (e.g., a gas collection canister (not shown)). Regardless, the exhaust passage 122 is open to the flow passage 114 at a location vertically above the bottom end 112. With this non-limiting example, carbon particles (or other debris) dislodged from the exhaust conduit 50 by the cleaning capsule 80 will travel or fall (via gravity) through the outlet opening 74, then through the flow passage 114, and into the reservoir 118. The particle collection canister 116 can be periodically removed from the down tube 110 and emptied. Gas flow through the exhaust conduit 50 travels through the outlet opening 74 into the flow passage 114, and then to the exhaust passage 122. By locating the particle collection canister 116 vertically below the exhaust passage 122 along the flow passage 114, dislodged carbon particles are removed from the gas flow to the exhaust tube 120 under the force of gravity. A number of other devices and/or mechanisms can be employed to remove/collect carbon particles dislodged from the exhaust conduit 50.

[23] During use, and with reference between FIGS. 1 and 2, the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 facilitates normal operation of the system 20 in performing methane (or other natural gas) pyrolysis as is understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. In some embodiments, the system 20 operates as a hybrid pyrolysis system, with high temperature process heat provided by solar energy and induction heating. Regardless, where the system 20 is operated to perform a methane pyrolysis process in which methane is decomposed into hydrogen and solid carbon, the hydrogen gas flows from the chamber 32 via the exit port 44 and into the exhaust conduit 50. The hydrogen gas flows through the exhaust conduit 50 to the outlet opening 74, including passing through the internal passage 92 of the cleaning capsule 80. From the outlet opening 74, the hydrogen gas is directed to a collection assembly (e.g., via the exhaust tube 120 as described above). Periodically or continuously during the methane pyrolysis process, the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 is operated to remove carbon particles deposited along the interior surface 70. The wiring 84 is energized, creating an electromagnetic field that propels the cleaning capsule 80 upwardly along the exhaust conduit 50. With this movement, the cleaning capsule 80 physically scrapes and removes deposited carbon particles from the interior surface 70. The so-removed carbon particles drop or fall to the outlet opening 74 and are directed to a collection assembly (e.g., the optional down tube 110 and particle collection canister 116 as described above).

[24] The exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 is well-suited for use with methane pyrolysis processes. Due to the operating temperatures of the reaction chamber 32 and the presence of methane and hydrogen, a typical motor cannot be used inside the reactor chamber 32, and there are no reliable shaft seals to operate at the expected temperatures. Any potential leak in the system 20 exposing the hot methane and hydrogen to oxygen/air creates an immediate fire and explosion risk. The exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 uniquely and elegantly addresses these design constraints while effecting necessary carbon particle deposit removal. To further address potential operational concerns raised by the expected elevated temperatures of gas/particles within exhaust conduit 50 (e.g., on the order of 1200 °C with efficient methane pyrolysis), an optional heat exchanger 130 can be assembled to an exterior of the exhaust conduit 50. The heat exchanger 130 can assume various forms, and in some embodiments can be akin to a water jacket. Regardless, the heat exchanger 130 functions to cool the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 (including the wiring 84), as well as the gas flowing through the exhaust conduit 50.

[25] Returning to FIG. 1, the chamber cleaning mechanism 62 includes a scraper body 150 disposed within the reaction chamber 32. The scraper body 150 has a curved shape, and is sized to conform to a size and shape of a wall 152 of the reaction chamber 32. With this configuration, as the scraper body 150 is rotated about an axis of rotation A, the scraper body 150 contacts and scrapes/removes deposited carbon particles from nearly an entirety of the chamber wall 152. The so-removed carbon particles (as well as solid carbon particles produced by the pyrolysis process that do not agglomerate to the chamber wall 152 or travel to the exit port 44) fall toward the collection port 46 and are removed from the chamber 32 via the collection conduit 52. As a point of reference, while FIG. 1 generally reflects the collection conduit 52 as being a homogenous tube, it will be understood that the collection conduit 52 can be defined or generated in various manners (e.g., aperture(s) formed through a thickness of components of the housing 30 (such as insulation bodies) and one or more pipes or tubes open to and extending from the housing 30).

[26] The chamber cleaning mechanism 62 can include various features or components that facilitate driven rotation of the scraper body 150. As mentioned herein, due to the operating temperatures of the reaction chamber 32 and the presence of methane and hydrogen (when the system 20 operates to perform a methane pyrolysis process), a typical motor cannot be used inside the reaction chamber 32, and there are no reliable shaft seals to operate at the expected temperatures. With this in mind, one example of a drive or motor assembly useful with the chamber cleaning mechanism 62 is shown in FIG. 4 and includes a stator 160 and a rotor body 162 that operate in tandem as an electric motor. The stator 160 can be of a conventional design, and is connected to a power source (not shown); when energized, the stator 160 generates an electromagnetic field. As reflected by FIG. 4, the stator 160 is located outside or away from the reaction chamber 32, for example circumferentially about an exterior of the collection conduit 52 at a location spaced from the housing 30. It will be understood that a centerline of the stator 160 generates the axis of rotation A. The rotor body 162 is formed of an electromagnetic material such as iron, ferrite or other highly permeable material(s) or composite, and is located within the collection conduit 52. The rotor body 162 can have the elongated shape as shown, and is generally configured for movement or translation along an inner face the collection conduit 52. Because the collection conduit 52 is open to the reaction chamber 32, the rotor body 162 can be considered as being “inside” of, or exposed to, the reaction chamber 32, whereas the stator 160 is not. A connection shaft 164 extends between and interconnects the rotor body 162 with the scraper body 150. Vertical alignment between the rotor body 162 and the stator 160 can be maintained in various manners, for example via a support ring 166 disposed within the collection conduit 52 and positioned to maintain the rotor body 162 as shown. With this construction, an electromagnetic force is exerted by the stator 160 onto the rotor body 162, causing the rotor body 162 to rotate against the collection conduit 52 about the axis of rotation A. This motion is transferred to the scraper body 150 via the connection shaft 164, causing the scraper body 150 to traverse along the chamber wall 152.

[27] Carbon particles directed to the collection port 46 (e.g., carbon particles that freely fall to the collection port 46 during the pyrolysis process, carbon particles dislodged from the chamber wall 152 by the scraper body 150, etc.) can be collected in various fashions. With the non-limiting example of FIG. 4, a primary particle collection canister 170 is releasably secured to the collection conduit 52 (e g., threaded connection). Carbon particles falling through the collection conduit 52 accumulate in the primary particle collection canister 170. The primary particle collection canister 170 can be periodically removed from the collection conduit 52 and emptied.

[28] Returning to FIG. 1, the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 and the chamber cleaning mechanism 62 facilitate pyrolysis processing by the system 20 on a continuous, or nearly continuous, basis, minimizing or eliminating risks of particle clogging of the reactor’s exhaust, or hindering the performance due to particle build-up within the reaction chamber 32. Moreover, the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 and the chamber cleaning mechanism 62 are configured and arranged for long term operation at the expected, elevated pyrolysis temperatures and without creating potential air leaks into the reaction chamber (e.g., where the system 20 is operated to perform solar powered methane pyrolysis, the cleaning mechanisms 60, 62 will continuously operate at expected pyrolysis temperatures at or above 1200 K, and do not create potential leaks that might otherwise expose the hot methane and hydrogen to oxygen/air). [29] In light of the above attributes, the cleaning mechanisms 60, 62 can be employed with a variety of differently-configured solar pyrolysis systems. For example, FIG. 5 is another solar powered pyrolysis system 200 in accordance with principles of the present disclosure; FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the system 200. The system 200 includes a reactor housing 210 defining a spherical reaction chamber 211 (FIG. 6). The reactor housing 210 maintains or includes various insulation layers, and a water jacketed outer shell to allow for continuous operation without overheating and damaging the structure. A window 212 is maintained at a front of the reactor housing 210 and directs solar energy into the reaction chamber 211. The reactor housing 210 further includes or maintains a graphite induction furnace 213 (referenced generally in FIG. 6) that increases throughput of methane pyrolysis and assists with temperature stability (e.g., under circumstances where sun exposure to the window 212 is limited). A series of gas injection ports 214 are arranged to inject gas (e.g., methane) into the reaction chamber 211 at tangent angles to create a spinning gas flow in the reaction chamber 211. A catalyst inlet port 216 is arranged for injecting catalysts (e.g., pure carbon/carbon black) into the reaction chamber 211.

[30] An exhaust conduit 220 is open to, and extends from, the reaction chamber 211 for exhausting gas generated by the pyrolysis process (e.g., hydrogen). Though not visible in the views, an exhaust cleaning mechanism (e.g., the exhaust cleaning mechanism 60 described above) is associated with the exhaust conduit 220. A particle collection canister 222 collects particles that are dislodged from the exhaust conduit 220 by operation of the exhaust cleaning mechanism. An exhaust tube 224 (referenced generally) is fluidly open to the exhaust conduit 220 at a location vertically above the particle collection canister 222, and directs gas flow from the exhaust conduit 220 to a cyclone separating mechanism 226 that operates to remove carbon particles from the hydrogen gas. Heat exchangers 228, 230, for example water jackets, are provided along the exhaust conduit 220 and the exhaust tube 224, respectively. [31] A collection conduit 240 is open to, and extends from, the reaction chamber for directing solid particles generated by the pyrolysis process (e.g., carbon particles). A chamber cleaning mechanism (e.g., the chamber cleaning mechanism 62 described above) is associated with the reaction chamber 211 and the collection conduit 240. For example, a scraper body 241 (akin to the scraper body 150 described above) is arranged to scrape against the chamber walls, with movement of the scraper body 241 being dictated by an electric motor-type device that includes a stator (not shown) located along the collection conduit 230. A primary particle collection canister 242 collects particles passing through the collection conduit 240.

[32] The solar thermochemical pyrolysis systems and methods of the present disclosure provide a marked improvement over previous designs. The exhaust cleaning mechanism and chamber cleaning mechanism facilitate continuous operation of the reactor system without risk of clogging the reactor’ s exhaust or hindering performance due to carbon build up within the reactor. The cleaning mechanisms achieve long term operation at the expected, elevated pyrolysis temperatures and without creating potential air leaks into the reaction chamber. Thus, the systems and methods of the present disclosure can be operated to perform solar powered (optionally with additional induction heating) methane pyrolysis, with continuous operations at methane pyrolysis temperatures at or above 1200 °C, and do not create potential leaks that might otherwise expose the hot methane and hydrogen to oxygen/air.

[33] Although the present disclosure has been described with reference to preferred embodiments, workers skilled in the art will recognize that changes can be made in form and detail without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure.