FUENTES KEYLA M (CL)
BERMÚDEZ-PUGA STALIN A (CL)
REBOLLEDO HERNÁN (CL)
FIGUEROA JOSÉ MIGUEL (CL)
ZAMORA PABLO (CL)
CLAIMS 1. A mycotextile comprising: a support scaffold layer; a first crosslinked mycelium layer extending adjacent to a first side of the support scaffold layer, and a second crosslinked mycelium layer extending adjacent to a second side of the support scaffold layer; and a plurality of nanoparticles within the first and second crosslinked mycelium layers, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles are functionalized to crosslink chitin/chitosan within hyphae of the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer. 2. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein nanoparticles of the plurality of nanoparticles have a mean diameter of between about 60 and 600 nm. 3. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles comprise one or more of: ceramic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, and/or carbon-based nanoparticles. 4. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles comprise ceramic nanoparticles. 5. The mycotextile of claim 4, wherein the ceramic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: SiO2, TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4. 6. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles comprise polymeric nanoparticles. 7. The mycotextile of claim 6, wherein the polymeric nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: zein, alginate, chitosan, latex, poly(lactide) (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) copolymers, and poly (ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL). 8. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles comprise metallic nanoparticles. 9. The mycotextile of claim 8, wherein the metallic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: Au, Ag, Cu, and Pt. 10. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles comprise carbon-based nanoparticles. 11. The mycotextile of claim 10, wherein the carbon-based nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: carbon nanofibers, single or multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, and carbon spheres. 12. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticles comprise composites nanoparticles combining two or more of: ceramic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles metallic nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanoparticles. 13. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles are functionalized nanoparticles comprising one or more polyphosphate groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more amino groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more epoxy groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more acrylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more isocyanate groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more vinylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles. 14. The mycotextile of claim 13, wherein the functionalized nanoparticles comprise a functionalizing agent selected from the group consisting of: 3-(Trihydroxysilyl)propyl methylphosphonate, sodium polyphosphate, phosphorous acid, phosphoric acid. 15. The mycotextile of claim 13, wherein the functionalizing agents to achieve the terminal functional groups are selected form the group consisting of: polyethylenimines, aminosilane, 3- Glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane, 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3- (triethoxysilyl)propyl isocyanate, vinyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, chloro(dimethyl)octylsilane. 16. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles within the crosslinked to hyphae of the first crosslinked mycelium layer comprise between 0.1% and 5% by weight of the mycotextile. 17. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the average diameter of the hyphae in the first mycelium layer and the second mycelium layer is greater than about 1µm. 18. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein a chitin fraction of the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer is 45 to 80% and wherein the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer are enriched for acetamide and/or amide groups. 19. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the scaffold layer comprises one or more reinforcement of: a glass fiber or, a carbon fiber or, a carbon nanofiber or an aramid fiber. 20. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the scaffold layer comprises a vegetable fiber layer. 21. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the scaffold layer comprises a reinforced chemically activated cotton layer. 22. The mycotextile of claim 1, wherein the first crosslinked mycelium layer is thicker than the second crosslinked mycelium layer. 23. The mycotextile of claim 1, further comprising a first external humidity barrier on an outer surface of the first crosslinked mycelium layer and a second external humidity barrier on an outer surface of the second crosslinked mycelium layer. 24. The mycotextile of claim 22, wherein the first external humidity barrier and the second external humidity barrier comprise a soluble biodegradable polymer, a plasticizer, between 1 to 5 wt.% of the polymer and between 30 to 50% of a plasticizer and water. 25. A mycotextile comprising: a support scaffold layer; a first crosslinked mycelium layer comprising a first hyphal network, wherein hyphae of the first hyphal network have an average diameter of 1 µm or greater, the first crosslinked mycelium layer extending adjacent to a first side of the support scaffold layer; a second crosslinked mycelium layer comprising a second hyphal network, wherein hyphae of the second hyphal network have an average diameter of 1 µm or greater, the second crosslinked mycelium layer extending adjacent to a second side of the support scaffold layer; and a plurality of nanoparticles within the first and second crosslinked mycelium layers, wherein a surface of each nanoparticle of the plurality of nanoparticles is functionalized to crosslink chitin within the hyphae of the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer. 26. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein nanoparticles of the plurality of nanoparticles have a diameter of between about 60 and 600 nm. 27. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the nanoparticles comprise one or more of: ceramic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, and/or carbon-based nanoparticles. 28. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the nanoparticles comprise ceramic nanoparticles. 29. The mycotextile of claim 28 wherein the ceramic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: SiO2, TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4. 30. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the nanoparticles comprise polymeric nanoparticles. 31. The mycotextile of claim 30, wherein the polymeric nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: zein, alginate, chitosan, latex, poly(lactide) (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) copolymers, and poly (ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL). 32. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the nanoparticles comprise metallic nanoparticles. 33. The mycotextile of claim 32, wherein the metallic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: Au, Ag, Cu, and Pt. 34. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the nanoparticles comprise carbon-based nanoparticles. 35. The mycotextile of claim 32, wherein the carbon-based nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: carbon nanofibers, single or multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, and carbon spheres. 36. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the nanoparticles comprise composites nanoparticles combining two or more of: ceramic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles metallic nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanoparticles. 37. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles are functionalized nanoparticles comprising one or more polyphosphate groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more amino groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more epoxy groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more acrylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more isocyanate groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more vinylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles. 38. The mycotextile of claim 37, wherein the functionalized nanoparticles comprise one or more polyphosphate groups bound to a surface of the nanoparticles with a functionalizing agent selected from the group consisting of: 3-(Trihydroxysilyl)propyl methylphosphonate, sodium polyphosphate, phosphorous acid, phosphoric acid. 39. The mycotextile of claim 37, wherein the functionalizing agents to achieve the terminal functional groups are selected form the group consisting of: polyethylenimines, aminosilane, 3- Glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane, 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3- (triethoxysilyl)propyl isocyanate, vinyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, chloro(dimethyl)octylsilane. 40. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles within the crosslinked to hyphae of the first crosslinked mycelium layer comprise between 0.1% and 5% by weight of the first crosslinked mycelium layer. 41. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein a chitin fraction of the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer is 45 to 80% and wherein the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer are enriched for acetamide and/or amide groups. 42. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the scaffold layer comprises one or more of: a glass fiber or, a carbon fiber or, a carbon nanofiber or polyaramid fiber, or a cotton interlining. 43. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the scaffold layer comprises a vegetable fiber layer. 44. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the scaffold layer comprises a chemically activated cotton layer. 45. The mycotextile of claim 25, wherein the first crosslinked mycelium layer is thicker than the second crosslinked mycelium layer. 46. The mycotextile of claim 25, further comprising a first external humidity barrier on an outer surface of the first crosslinked mycelium layer and a second external humidity barrier on an outer surface of the second crosslinked mycelium layer. 47. The mycotextile of claim 46, wherein the first external humidity barrier and the second external humidity barrier comprise 1 to 5 wt.% of the polymer and between 30 to 50% of a plasticizer and water. 48. A mycotextile comprising: a support scaffold layer; a crosslinked mycelium layer extending adjacent to at least a first side of the support scaffold layer; an external humidity barrier on an outer surface of the crosslinked mycelium layer; and a plurality of nanoparticles within the crosslinked mycelium layer, wherein a surface of each nanoparticle of the plurality of nanoparticles is functionalized to crosslink chitin/chitosan within hyphae of the crosslinked mycelium layer. 49. A mycotextile comprising: a chemically activated support scaffold layer; a crosslinked mycelium layer comprising a plurality of crosslinked hyphae extending adjacent to at least a first side of the support scaffold layer, wherein the functionalized support scaffold layer is crosslinked to the mycelium layer; and a plurality of nanoparticles crosslinking chitin/chitosan within the hyphae of the mycelium layer, so that the mycotextile has a tensile strength that is 5 MPa or greater. 50. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the functionalized reinforced support scaffold layer comprises one or more of: a glass fiber or, a carbon fiber or, a carbon nanofiber, or polyaramid fiber, or a cotton interlining. 51. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the functionalized support scaffold layer comprises a carbon fiber. 52. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the chemically activated support scaffold layer has been chemically activated to covalently bond to chitin within the hyphae of the mycelium layer. 53. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the functionalized support scaffold layer is between about 0.1 mm to about 0.6 mm. 54. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein nanoparticles of the plurality of nanoparticles have a diameter of between about 60 and 600 nm. 55. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the nanoparticles comprise ceramic nanoparticles. 56. The mycotextile of claim 55, wherein the ceramic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: SiO2, TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4. 57. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the nanoparticles comprise polymeric nanoparticles. 58. The mycotextile of claim 57, wherein the polymeric nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: alginate, chitosan, latex, poly(lactide) (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) copolymers, and poly (ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL). 59. The mycotextile of claim 49 wherein the nanoparticles comprise metallic nanoparticles. 60. The mycotextile of claim 59, wherein the metallic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: Au, Ag, Cu, and Pt. 61. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the nanoparticles comprise carbon-based nanoparticles. 62. The mycotextile of claim 61, wherein the carbon-based nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: carbon nanofibers, single or multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, and carbon spheres. 63. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the nanoparticles comprise composites nanoparticles combining two or more of: ceramic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles metallic nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanoparticles. 64. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles are functionalized nanoparticles comprising one or more polyphosphate groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more amino groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more epoxy groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more acrylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more isocyanate groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more vinylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles. 65. The mycotextile of claim 64, wherein the functionalized nanoparticles comprise a functionalizing agent selected from the group consisting of: 3-(Trihydroxysilyl)propyl methylphosphonate, sodium polyphosphate, phosphorous acid, phosphoric acid. 66. The mycotextile of claim 64, wherein the functionalizing agents to achieve the terminal functional groups are selected from the group consisting of: polyethylenimines, aminosilane, 3- Glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane, 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3- (triethoxysilyl)propyl isocyanate, vinyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, chloro(dimethyl)octylsilane. 67. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles within the crosslinked to hyphae of the first crosslinked mycelium layer comprises between 0.1% and 5% by weight of the first crosslinked mycelium layer. 68. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the average diameter of the hyphae in the first mycelium layer and the second mycelium layer is greater than about 1 µm. 69. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein a chitin fraction of the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer is 47 to 80% and wherein the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer are enriched for acetamide and/or amide groups. 70. The mycotextile of claim 49, further comprising an external humidity barrier on an outer surface of the crosslinked mycelium layer. 71. The mycotextile of claim 49, wherein the external humidity barrier comprises a soluble biodegradable polymer, a plasticizer, and water, between 1 to 5 wt.% of the polymer and between 30 to 50% of a plasticizer and water. 72. A mycotextile, the textile comprising: a chemically activated support scaffold layer; a crosslinked mycelium layer comprising a plurality of crosslinked hyphae extending adjacent to at least a first side of the support scaffold layer, wherein the activated support scaffold layer is crosslinked to the mycelium layer; and a plurality of nanoparticles crosslinking chitin/chitosan within the hyphae of the mycelium layer, so that the crosslinked mycelium has a tensile strength that is at least 10% greater than the tensile strength of the activated support scaffold layer alone. 73. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the chemically activated support scaffold layer is reinforced with one or more of: a glass fiber, a carbon fiber, a carbon nanofiber, a polyaramid fiber, or a cotton interlining. 74. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the chemically activated support scaffold layer comprises a carbon fiber. 75. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the chemically activated support scaffold layer comprises a vegetable fiber layer. 76. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the chemically activated support scaffold layer comprises a cotton layer. 77. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the chemically activated support scaffold layer has been functionalized to covalently bond to chitin within the hyphae of the mycelium layer. 78. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the functionalized support scaffold layer is between about 0.1 mm to about 0.6 mm. 79. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein nanoparticles of the plurality of nanoparticles have a diameter of between about 60 and 600 nm. 80. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the nanoparticles comprise ceramic nanoparticles. 81. The mycotextile of claim 80, wherein the ceramic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: SiO2, TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4. 82. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the nanoparticles comprise polymeric nanoparticles. 83. The mycotextile of claim 82, wherein the polymeric nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: zein, alginate, chitosan, latex, poly(lactide) (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) copolymers, and poly (ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL). 84. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the nanoparticles comprise metallic nanoparticles. 85. The mycotextile of claim 84, wherein the metallic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: Au, Ag, Cu, and Pt. 86. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the nanoparticles comprise carbon-based nanoparticles. 87. The mycotextile of claim 86, wherein the carbon-based nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: carbon nanofibers, single or multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, and carbon spheres. 88. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the nanoparticles comprise composites nanoparticles combining two or more of: ceramic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles metallic nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanoparticles. 89. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles are functionalized nanoparticles comprising one or more polyphosphate groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more amino groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more epoxy groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more acrylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more isocyanate groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more vinylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles. 90. The mycotextile of claim 89, wherein the functionalized nanoparticles comprise a functionalizing agent selected from the group consisting of: 3-(Trihydroxysilyl)propyl methylphosphonate, sodium polyphosphate, phosphorous acid, phosphoric acid. 91. The mycotextile of claim 89, wherein the functionalizing agents to achieve the terminal functional groups are selected form the group consisting of: polyethylenimines, aminosilane, 3- Glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane, 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3- (triethoxysilyl)propyl isocyanate, vinyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, chloro(dimethyl)octylsilane. 92. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles within the crosslinked to hyphae of the first crosslinked mycelium layer comprise between 0.1% and 5% by weight of the first crosslinked mycelium layer. 93. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the average diameter of the hyphae in the first mycelium layer and the second mycelium layer is greater than about 1 µm. 94. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein a chitin fraction of the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer is 45 to 80% and wherein the first crosslinked mycelium layer and the second crosslinked mycelium layer are enriched for acetamide and/or amide groups. 95. The mycotextile of claim 72, further comprising an external humidity barrier on an outer surface of the crosslinked mycelium layer. 96. The mycotextile of claim 72, wherein the external humidity barrier comprises a soluble biodegradable polymer, a plasticizer, between 1 to 5 wt.% of the polymer and between 30 to 50% of a plasticizer and water. 97. A method of forming a mycotextile, the method comprising: generating a pre-inoculum substrate seeded with a selected fungal strain, wherein the selected fungal strain has a hyphal diameter of 1 µm or greater, a chitin fraction of 45 to 80%, and is enriched for acetamide and/or amide groups; growing a mycelium mat using the pre-inoculum substrate; and processing the mycelium mat to crosslink chitin in the hypha to form the mycotextile. 98. The method of claim 97, further comprising selecting the fungal strain wherein the selected fungal strain has one or more reactive groups for deacetylation and/or crosslinking apparent between 1500 and 1700 cm-1 using attenuated total reflectance (ATR) / Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. 99. The method of claim 97, further comprising selecting the fungal strain wherein the selected fungal strain has an additional reactive carbonyl compound in a chitin composition of the strain as compared to the chitin composition of a control strain of G. lucidum SB-0000. 100. The method of claim 99, wherein the additional reactive carbonyl moiety comprises an additional shoulder at 1734 cm-1 and around 3000 and 3300 cm-1 using ATR / FTIR spectroscopy. 101. The method of claim 97, wherein generating the pre-inoculum substrate seeded with the selected fungal strain comprises culturing the selected fungal strain in a solid-state bag of substate comprising a sterile grain comprising one or more of: corn, wheat, rice, sorghum, rye, and millet. 102. The method of claim 97, wherein growing the mycelium mat using the pre-inoculum substrate comprises: preparing a production substrate that is inoculated with the pre-inoculum substrate, preparing a bio-organic foam from the production substrate, and growing the bio-organic foam into the mycelium mat. 103. The method of claim 102, wherein preparing the production substrate that is inoculated with the pre-inoculum substrate comprises combining a lignocellulosic material and a nitrogen source having an approximately 40:1 carbon to nitrogen ratio and a moisture content of between about 60-75% with the pre-inoculum substrate and incubating the production substrate to grow the selected strain. 104. The method of claim 103, wherein the lignocellulosic material comprises wood chips or sawdust. 105. The method of claim 103, wherein incubating the production substrate comprises incubating at between 25-30 degrees C for between 8-14 days. 106. The method of claim 97, wherein preparing the bio-organic foam comprises incorporating into a homogenized foam, the production substrate with an activator comprising micronutrients for mycelial development, water and one or more of: a glycerol, a polyglycol, a polyalkylene oxide, or a polyadipate. 107. The method of claim 106, wherein incorporating the production substrate comprises incorporating the production substrate when the selected fungal strain is at a colonization percentage of greater than 90%. 108. The method of claim 106, wherein the activator comprises a casein solution or a MARILLION activator. 109. The method of claim 104, wherein the bio-organic foam comprises about 40-50% of colonized production substrate, about 5-10% of 96% w/v of one or more of: a glycerol, a polyglycol, a polyalkylene oxide, or a polyadipate, about 10-15% of activator and water. 110. The method of claim 102, wherein growing the bio-organic foam into the mycelium mat comprises spreading the bio-organic foam onto a mesh support and incubating for a first time period to form a growing mycelium mat, adding a functionalized support scaffold layer onto the growing mycelium mat after the first time period, and incubating for a second time period. 111. The method of claim 97, wherein processing the mycelium mat to crosslink chitin/chitosan in the hypha comprises impregnating hyphae within the mycelium mat with a plurality of functionalized nanoparticles and covalently or electrostatically crosslinking the functionalized nanoparticles to chitin/chitosan in the hyphae to form the mycotextile. 112. The method of claim 97, wherein growing a mycelium mat, comprises incorporating a chemically activated support scaffold within the mycelium mat and covalently crosslinking the functionalized support scaffold to chitin within the mycelium mat. 113. The method of claim 97, wherein processing the mycelium mat further comprises one or more of: pressing the mycelium mat to a desired thickness, applying a mordant to the mycelium mat, dyeing the mycelium mat, applying an internal moisturizer composition to the mycelium mat, and applying an external wetting composition to the mycelium mat. 114. A method of forming a mycotextile, the method comprising: selecting a fungal strain, wherein the fungal strain has a hyphal diameter of 1 µm or greater, a chitin fraction of 45 to 80%, and is enriched for acetamide and/or amide groups; generating a pre-inoculum substrate seeded with the selected fungal strain; growing a mycelium mat using the pre-inoculum substrate, wherein a scaffold layer is added while growing the mycelium mat so that the scaffold layer is incorporated into the mycelium mat; and processing the mycelium mat to crosslink chitin/chitosan in the hypha to form the mycotextile. 115. The method of claim 114, wherein the scaffold layer comprises a chemically activated scaffold layer comprising functional groups configured to crosslink to hyphal chitin in the mycelium mat covalently. 116. The method of claim 114, wherein selecting the fungal strain comprises selecting a fungal strain having one or more reactive groups for deacetylation and/or crosslinking apparent between 1500 and 1700 cm-1 using attenuated total reflectance (ATR) / Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. 117. The method of claim 114, wherein selecting the fungal strain comprises selecting a fungal strain having an additional reactive carbonyl compound in a chitin composition of the strain as compared to the chitin composition of a control strain of G. lucidum SB-0000. 118. The method of claim 117, wherein the additional reactive carbonyl moiety comprises an additional shoulder at 1734 cm-1 and around 3000 and 3300 cm-1 using ATR / FTIR spectroscopy. 119. The method of claim 114, wherein generating the pre-inoculum substrate seeded with the selected fungal strain, comprises culturing the selected fungal strain in a solid-state bag of a substrate comprising a sterile grain comprising one or more of: corn, wheat, rice, sorghum, rye, and millet. 120. The method of claim 114, wherein growing the mycelium mat using the pre-inoculum substrate comprises: preparing a production substrate that is inoculated with the pre-inoculum substrate, preparing a bio-organic foam from the production substrate, and growing the bio-organic foam into the mycelium mat. 121. The method of claim 114, wherein preparing the production substrate that is inoculated with the pre-inoculum substrate comprises combining a lignocellulosic material and a nitrogen source having an approximately 40:1 carbon to nitrogen ratio and a moisture content of between about 60-75% with the pre-inoculum substrate and incubating the production substrate to grow the selected strain. 122. The method of claim 121, wherein the lignocellulosic material comprises wood chips or sawdust. 123. The method of claim 121 wherein incubating the production substrate comprises incubating at between 25-30 degrees C for between 8-14 days. 124. The method of claim 120, wherein preparing the bio-organic foam comprises incorporating the production substrate, into a homogenized foam, with an activator comprising micronutrients for mycelial development, water and one or more of: a glycerol, a polyglycol, a polyalkylene oxide, or a polyadipate. 125. The method of claim 124, wherein incorporating the production substrate comprises incorporating the production substrate when the selected fungal strain is at a colonization percentage of greater than 90%. 126. The method of claim 124, wherein the activator comprises a casein solution or a MARILLION activator. 127. The method of claim 124, wherein the bio-organic foam comprises about 40-50% of colonized production substrate, about 5-10% of 96% w/v of one or more of: a glycerol, a polyglycol, a polyalkylene oxide, or a polyadipate, about 10-15% of activator and water. 128. The method of claim 120, wherein growing the bio-organic foam into the mycelium mat comprises spreading the bio-organic foam onto a mesh support and incubating for a first time period to form a growing mycelium mat, adding the scaffold layer onto the growing mycelium mat after the first time period, and incubating for a second time period. 129. The method of claim 114, wherein processing the mycelium mat to crosslink chitin in the hypha comprises impregnating hyphae within the mycelium mat with a plurality of functionalized nanoparticles and covalently or electrostatically crosslinking the functionalized nanoparticles to chitin in the hyphae to form the mycotextile o mycotextile. 130. The method of claim 114, wherein processing the mycelium mat further comprises one or more of: pressing the mycelium mat to a desired thickness, dyeing the mycelium mat, applying a mordant to the mycelium mat, applying an internal wetting composition to the mycelium mat, and applying an external wetting composition to the mycelium mat. 131. A method of forming a mycotextile, the method comprising: generating a pre-inoculum substrate seeded with a fungal strain; growing a mycelium mat using the pre-inoculum substrate; impregnating hyphae within the mycelium mat with a plurality of functionalized nanoparticles; and covalently or electrostatically crosslinking the functionalized nanoparticles to chitin/chitosan in the hyphae to form the mycotextile. 132. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises soaking or spraying the mycelium mat with a suspension of the functionalized nanoparticles. 133. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises applying between about 0.1 g/L and 1 g/L of functionalized nanoparticles to the mycelium mat. 134. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises impregnating the hyphae with nanoparticles having a diameter of between about 60 and 600 nm. 135. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises impregnating the hyphae with nanoparticles comprising ceramic nanoparticles. 136. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises impregnating the hyphae with nanoparticles comprising ceramic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: SiO2, TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4. 137. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises impregnating the hyphae with nanoparticles comprising polymeric nanoparticles. 138. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises impregnating the hyphae with nanoparticles comprising polymeric nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: zein, alginate, chitosan, latex, poly(lactide) (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) copolymers, and poly (ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL). 139. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises impregnating the hyphae with nanoparticles comprising metallic nanoparticles. 140. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae comprises impregnating the hyphae with nanoparticles comprising metallic nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: Au, Ag, Cu, and Pt. 141. The method of claim 131, wherein the nanoparticles comprise carbon-based nanoparticles. 142. The method of claim 131, wherein the carbon-based nanoparticles are selected from the group consisting of: carbon nanofibers, single or multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, and carbon spheres. 143. The method of claim 131, wherein the nanoparticles comprise composites nanoparticles combining two or more of: ceramic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles metallic nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanoparticles. 144. The method of claim 131, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles are functionalized nanoparticles comprising one or more polyphosphate groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more amino groups coupled to a surface of the nanoparticles, one or more epoxy groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more acrylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more isocyanate groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles, one or more vinylic groups coupled to the surface of the nanoparticles. 145. The method of claim 144, wherein the functionalized nanoparticles comprise a functionalizing agent selected from the group consisting of: 3-(Trihydroxysilyl)propyl methylphosphonate, sodium polyphosphate, phosphorous acid, phosphoric acid. 146. The method of claim 144, wherein the functionalizing agents to achieve the terminal functional groups are selected form the group consisting of: polyethylenimines, aminosilane, 3- Glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane, 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3- (triethoxysilyl)propyl isocyanate, vinyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, chloro(dimethyl)octylsilane. 147. The method of claim 131, wherein impregnating the hyphae, comprises impregnating the hyphae with nanoparticles so that the final percentage of nanoparticles is between 0.1% and 5% by weight of the hyphae. 148. The method of claim 131, wherein covalently or electrostatically crosslinking the functionalized nanoparticles to chitin/chitosan in the hyphae, comprises covalently or electrostatically engaging functional groups with polyphosphate, polycarboxylic, acrylic, isocyanate, or vinylic groups on a surface of the functionalized nanoparticles. 149. A method of forming a mycotextile, the method comprising: generating a pre-inoculum substrate seeded with a fungal strain; growing a mycelium mat using the pre-inoculum substrate, wherein a scaffold layer is added during while growing so that the scaffold layer is incorporated into the mycelium mat; covalently crosslinking the scaffold layer to chitin within the mycelium mat; impregnating hyphae within the mycelium mat with a plurality of functionalized nanoparticles, and covalently or electrostatically crosslinking the functionalized nanoparticles to chitin/chitosan in the hyphae to form the mycotextile. 150. A method of forming a mycotextile, the method comprising: generating a pre-inoculum substrate seeded with a fungal strain; growing a mycelium mat using the pre-inoculum substrate comprising: preparing a production substrate that is inoculated with the pre-inoculum substrate, preparing a bio-organic foam from the production substrate, and growing the bio- organic foam into the mycelium mat; and processing the mycelium mat to crosslink chitin in the hypha to form the mycotextile. 151. The method of claim 150, wherein preparing the production substrate that is inoculated with the pre-inoculum substrate comprises combining a lignocellulosic material and a nitrogen source having an approximately 40:1 carbon to nitrogen ratio and a moisture content of between about 60-75% with the pre-inoculum substrate and incubating the production substrate to grow the selected strain. 152. The method of claim 150, wherein the lignocellulosic material comprises wood chips or sawdust. 153. The method of claim 150, wherein incubating the production substrate comprises incubating at between 25-30 degrees C for between 8-14 days. 154. The method of claim 150, wherein preparing the bio-organic foam comprises incorporating the production substrate into a homogenized foam with an activator comprising micronutrients for mycelial development, water, and one or more of: a glycerol, a polyglycols, a polyalkylene oxide, or a polyadipate. 155. The method of claim 154, wherein incorporating the production substrate comprises incorporating the production substrate when the selected fungal strain is at a colonization percentage of greater than 90%. 156. The method of claim 154, wherein the activator comprises a casein solution or a MARILLION activator. 157. The method of claim 154, wherein the bio-organic foam comprises about 40-50% of colonized production substrate (greater than 90%), about 5-10% of 96% w/v of one or more of: a glycerol, a polyglycols, a polyalkylene oxides, or a polyadipates, about 10-15% of activator and water. 158. The method of claim 150, wherein growing the bio-organic foam into the mycelium mat comprises spreading the bio-organic foam onto a mesh support and incubating for a first time period to form a growing mycelium mat, adding a chemically activated support scaffold layer onto the growing mycelium mat after the first time period, and incubating for a second time period. 159. The method of claim 150, wherein processing the mycelium mat to crosslink chitin in the hypha comprises impregnating hyphae within the mycelium mat with a plurality of functionalized nanoparticles and covalently crosslinking the functionalized nanoparticles to chitin in the hyphae to form the mycotextile. 160. The method of claim 150, wherein growing a mycelium mat comprises incorporating a chemically activated support scaffold within the mycelium mat and covalently crosslinking the chemically activated support scaffold to chitin within the mycelium mat. 161. The method of claim 150, wherein processing the mycelium mat further comprises one or more of: pressing the mycelium mat to a desired thickness, applying a mordant to the mycelium mat, dyeing the mycelium mat, applying an internal wetting composition to the mycelium mat, and applying an external wetting composition to the mycelium mat. |
Table 2 Differences of da s in m celial rowth accordin to com onents of BIOr anic Foam [0177] Thus, if the foam contains an activator such as casein solution, a two-day incubation period is sufficient before placing the chemically activated layer/scaffold. If no activator (e.g., casein solution) is added to the mix, the trays should be incubated for about 5 days before layering/scaffolding. Likewise, if the mixture has an activator, 7 days of incubation will be required after placing the layer/scaffold to harvest the mycotextiles, while without the activator solution, the trays should be incubated for about 9 days before harvesting. [0178] The chemically activated scaffolds described herein may be fabric or non-fabric materials. In general, the chemically activated scaffold may be alternatively and equivalently referred to as an activated layer or activated fabric, or reinforcement layer, reinforcement scaffold or reinforcement fabric. In some examples, the activated layer is configured as a support fabric that supports the growth of the aerial mycelium. The activated layer may include multiple reactive groups that bond to the chitin within the mycelium and may also provide mechanical support. The activation of the layer may be essential to prevent delamination of the final material from the layer. It may dramatically improve the mechanical characteristics of the material, as described herein. In some examples, a high resistance material (e.g., activated layer or scaffold) is formed of a plant- based fiber, such as cotton or jute, with a tensile strength value of between 280 and 800 MPa. However, in practice, such plant-based textiles may decrease their tensile strength over time, as reported for prior versions of mycelium leather, which typically have a tensile strength of between 0.8 and 12.5 MPa. [0179] Alternatively, the activated scaffold/layer may be formed of a complex fiber such as a glass fiber (GF), carbon fiber (CF), or polyaramid fiber (PAF), each of which has remarkable mechanical properties. These fibers may be used as mechanical reinforcement for the fungal-based fabrics described herein. In general, these fibers may be referred to as non-plant fibers or synthetic fibers (e.g., glass, carbon and/or polyaramid fibers). Tensile strength values using non-plant fibers (e.g., synthetic fibers) may range between 2000 and 4000 MPa. [0180] In general, the activated layer comprising a non-plant-based fiber (such as a glass, fiber, a carbon fiber and/or a polyaramid fiber) may be incorporated from continuous yarns and a sewing machine as a first approximation. The incorporation of the thread can be done in various patterns such as square mesh, honeycomb, or zigzag to optimize reinforcement in different directions of the fabric. Likewise, the reticulation degree can be varied to increase the effect. For example, this reticulation could be changed by varying the diameter of the repeating units, which would increase the number of repeating units per unit area. [0181] Activated scaffold material (e.g., the activated non-plant, such as activated glass fiber, carbon fiber, and/or a polyaramid fiber) may be applied as a sheet onto the foam, as shown in FIG. 16 (e.g., after between 2-5 days of incubation of the foam material. The sheet of material may have an open pore arrangement and may include very small pores (e.g., less than 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%, 0.1%, etc. of the open). The sheet of material may include a pattern (honeycomb pattern, square pattern, etc.) and may be woven, knit, braided, etc. The material may be activated as described in more detail below. The material may be formed of a filament or bundle of filaments. The filaments may have an appropriate diameter, such as between 0.01- and 1-mm diameter (e.g., between 0.01 mm and 0.5 mm diameter, between 0.05 and 0.5 mm diameter), etc. [0182] In some examples, the fiber (non-plant fiber) may be sewn or stitched into the material instead of or in addition to adding it during the foaming procedure as described above. For example, incorporating a 0.18 mm diameter glass fiber by following a bioinspired honeycomb pattern of 1024 units per m 2 caused a 43% decrease in tensile strength from the original fabric and a 55% drop in elongation percentage before the break. A higher density of repeating units (4096 units per m 2 ) reduced only 7% in tensile strength. A square lattice pattern with the same density of repeating units decreased the tensile strength by 1%. All this indicates that other options for incorporating GFs in the layer should be explored to observe the desired effect on resistance. Both the reticulation degree and the pattern play a significant role in the property evaluated. [0183] For example, a carbon fiber with a fiber diameter of 0.2 mm may increase tensile strength when a piece of cotton fabric is used as a substrate material. In this example, the cotton fabric's tensile strength may increase by about 23% and may decrease elongation by about 11% when introducing 4096 repetitive units per m 2 . This example has a value of 20.3 MPa and an elongation of 21.2%. [0184] In other examples, polyaramid fiber increased in 32.56% of a raw cotton fabric having an initial tensile strength of 2.63 MPa by introducing 4096 repetitive units per m 2 . This thread also diminishes the elongation from 70 to 50%. Cotton interlining with a mesh pattern as described above increased the tensile strength up to 7.6 MPa and diminish the elongation to 28%. FIG. 17 illustrates examples of the tensile strength and elongation values for various scaffolds compared to non-reinforced layers. [0185] The interaction between the support fabric and the growing mycelium layer could be modified by suitable functionalities chemically related to the polymers/biopolymers present in both the scaffolding (e.g., cotton, etc.) and the mycelium to avoid detachment of the mycelial layer from the support layer/scaffold. Thus, the methods and compositions (e.g., mycotextiles or mycotextiles) described herein may generally include a support scaffold/layer that is chemically activated to increase this binding. For example, vegetable support scaffold/layers (such as cotton) may be chemically activated with citric acid or sodium polyphosphate before forming the scaffold (e.g., with one or more synthetic fibers as inorganic reinforcements). As can be seen in FIG. 18, in the case of incorporating the citric acid, the functionalization may be confirmed by the appearance of the signals corresponding to the stretching vibrations (ν) and deformation (ρ) of the carboxyl group (COO-) of citric acid when comparing a cotton substrate to a modified (activated) cotton substrate. As used herein, the terms “activated” and “functionalized” may refer to the inclusion of reactive groups configured to bind with cell wall material (e.g., chitin). [0186] Following the first 2-5 days of mycelial growth on the BIOrganic foam material, the support layer/scaffold (e.g., activated and/or reinforced) may be placed onto the growing foam material, which in one example, has been activated with 2% citric acid. The placement of the layers/scaffolds may be done uniformly, gently pressing the sheet on the mycelium with a roller and avoiding the formation of air bubbles between both parts. The tray may be incubated under the same conditions described. [0187] In some examples, the MARILLION activator is a mixture of A and B solutions. For example, to prepare solution A, each component described in the table below (table 3) may be weighed and made up to 998 mL with distilled water.
[0188] This recipe may be used to prepare 1 liter of MARILLION solution. In some examples, 100 mL of solution B may be prepared according to the formula detailed in the table below (Table [0189] Once both solutions are ready, 2 mL of solution B may be placed in 998 mL of solution A, obtaining a final volume of 1000 mL. The activator described in this example may be referred to as the MARILLION activator. Finally, the solution may be sterilized for 35 minutes at 120 °C and 15 psi and placed in a sterile atomizer to evenly distribute it over the layers/scaffolds (or may be added to the production substrate, as described above). [0190] Any of the methods described herein may include, e.g., as part of the fermentation (including the foam) technique, a change in the microclimatic incubation conditions (e.g., in the Growing Room), for example, after the placement of the activated layers/scaffolds. In some examples, the temperature (e.g., 28-30 °C), darkness, and 99-100 % relative humidity may remain the same. However, the CO 2 concentration may be increased to 20,000-50,000 ppm within 48-72 hours after the activated layer/scaffold is placed. The growing mycelium may therefore have enough time to colonize the layer/scaffold before applying the high concentrations of CO 2 which may displace the oxygen in the growth chambers, resulting in faster and more uniform growth. [0191] After complete incubation, following the addition of the activated scaffold/layer and incubation period, the putative mycotextile may be removed from the tray. A spatula may be used to separate the foam from the support mesh for this operation. Subsequently, the material may be dried, e.g., in a convection oven for 15 minutes at 60 °C and then exposed to UV light for 15 to 20 minutes to inactivate the fungus and to continue the post-fermentation stage. Post-Fermentation [0192] After the fermentation stage, when the aerial mycelium has formed below, above, and between the support layer/scaffold (which in some examples may be activated), the resulting material may be treated to form a resistant mycelium textile. These post-fermentation treatment steps mainly involve hydration, crosslinking to provide greater mechanical strength (usually carried out using vegetable tanning schemes), pressing, drying, and in some cases, embossing. Also described herein are methods that include the addition of nanoparticles. In some examples, the nanoparticles may be added during the fermentation stage or during both the fermentation stage and post-fermentation stages. Some or all of these post-fermentation treatments may be performed. In some examples, the post-fermentation stage(s) may depend on the fungal strain, or the process parameters used. [0193] Any of these methods may include the use of a plasticizing agent. In some examples, suitable results may be obtained in appearance by using only glycerol as a plasticizing agent. However, further processing steps may be useful to prevent brittleness and the loss of internal moisture. Besides, additional processing may dramatically increase the durability of the resulting material; durability may allow more environmentally friendly materials that are also highly functional. [0194] In some examples, the post-fermentation stage may include one or more (or all of): (1) internal wetting, (2) nano-crosslinking; (3) pressing (which may include embossing); (4) activation with mordant; (5) dyeing; and (6) external humidity barrier (plasticizing). Development of a formulation for internal wetting [0195] Any of the methods described herein may include increasing the internal wetting of the hyphal network by incorporating one or more additives that may increase flexibility. The compositions may be referred to as internal wetting compositions or humectants (internal humectants). These internal wetting compositions may include a vegetable oil and, a surfactant or a surfactant blend and, water. In some examples are vegetable oils (as fatliquoring agents), such as sulfated castor oil, beeswax, coconut oil, olive oil, linseed oil, oleic acid, sulfated fish oil, sulfated canola oil, soybean oil, palm oil, fatty acids, etc., may be included or incorporated as a moisturizer. [0196] Some examples described herein are humectant formulations developed to transport soybean oil using a polysorbate with HLB between 15 and 16.7 as an emulsifying agent. In general, the emulsion mixture should remain stable over time (e.g., longer than 24 h) without separating, and should prevent detachment of the mycelium from the support layer/scaffold and should not dry out over time. An example of a soybean-oil based mixture includes soybean oil (e.g., 12 % p/p), tween 20 (e.g., 12 % p/p), water (e.g., 70 % p/p), and glycerol (e.g., 6 % w/w). The emulsion presented good fluidity but low stability (approx. 24 h). Despite good fluidity and the increase in the wetting of the prototypes, a detachment of the mycelium was observed in some areas. The solubilization of some cell wall components is caused because of the composition, affecting its adherence to the support layer/scaffold. [0197] Some examples described herein comprises coconut oil-based O/W emulsions using surfactant blends to achieve HLB values of approximately 8. A matrix was made based on the HLB values and possible proportions of each candidate component. The calculation was made in first approximation as: HLB final = (% A x HLBA) + (% B x HLBB) + (% C x HLBC)…, some examples may include polysorbates with HLB between 15 and 16.7, e.g., Tween 20, Tween 60 or Tween 80 and, a surfactant with HLB between 3.8 and 6.7, such as, sorbitan oleate (Span 80), sorbitan stearate (Span 60) or glyceryl monostearate (GMS). [0198] Some examples described herein use a surfactant blend of Tween 20 (HLB of 16.7), and GMS (HLB of 3.8). A mix of 30 % Tween 20 and 70 % GMS was initially chosen. Oil / surfactant (O/S) and water / oil (W/O) ratios were varied. The compositions evaluated herein showed a single phase. The selection was based on empirical criteria such as the fluidity of the mixture and stability (a single milky phase). Examples of mixtures examined included 30 % Tween 20 and 70 % GMS, and 50 % Tween 20 and 50 % GMS. A general procedure for the preparation of each mixture is the following: each component is weighed separately. The water was mixed with the surfactant with higher HLB and heated to about 80 °C. The surfactant with the lower HLB and the oil phase was mixed and brought to an equal temperature than the aqueous phase. The oily phase was transferred to a container for mixing under high shear force (e.g., 15,000 rpm/min). The aqueous phase was slowly added slowly. Constant stirring continued for 5 min. A proper mixture should be fluid, milky in appearance, and homogeneous (no phase separation). Some examples of proper mixtures presented as references are shown in Table 5, below: (“O”, Coconut oil), 2 % surfactant blend (“S”, a mixture of 50:50 Tween 20 and GMS), and 78 % water (“W”). Table 5. O, S, W proportions to prepare emulsions [0199] Thus, the methods described herein may include using an internal wetting composition, including those described herein that include a combination of vegetable oil (e.g., coconut oil), a surfactant blend, and water, in which the oil is between 5-40% w/w, the surfactant is between 2- 10% w/w, with water making up the difference (e.g., between 50-93%). The surfactant may be a combination of a non-ionic surfactant with high HLB (e.g., Tween 20, Tween 60, Tween 80) and a fatty acid ester (e.g., Span 60, Span 80, glyceryl monostearate) in a ratio of between about 40%- 60%, 30%/70% (e.g., 50%/50%). These internal wetting compositions may be particularly well suited and formulated specifically to the fungal-derived textiles described herein. [0200] The internal wetting composition may be applied to the material's surface following fermentation and before further processing. In some examples, internal wetting using the emulsion composition (e.g., the internal wetting composition described herein) may be achieved by soaking the mat of material for approximately 30 min, followed by drying up to 20 % of humidity, preferably between 20 and 50 %. The volume used for the treatment may depend on the putative fabric surface. For example, the minimum volume used for treatment may be about 1.5 to 2.5 L/m 2 for fabrics with about 1 to 2 mm of thickness, respectively. For example, between 1-2 L/m 2 of internal wetting composition may be used for every 1 mm of the thickness of the material (prior to compression). [0201] In some examples, the material may incorporate 20 wt.% of coconut oil in the internal wetting composition emulsion, with 78 wt.% of water and 2 wt.% of the surfactant blend (e.g., 1% of tween 20 and 1% of glyceryl monoestearate (GMS) or 0.6 % of Tween 80 and 1.4 % of Span 80). Outside of the range of compositions described herein, the internal wetting composition may result in phase separation (i.e., oil and aqueous phases), a very high viscosity, or a low stability over time (e.g., low shelf-life). In general, coconut oil may be optimal, as different types of oil or other amounts of coconut oil (outside of the specified range) may require a particular composition because the hydrophilic to lipophilic balance (HLB number) will change. The principal component is the water to obtain an oil-in-water emulsion (O/W). This value may depend on the other components (e.g., it may be adjusted but should be above 50 and below 100 wt.%). To obtain a liquid and fluid emulsion, the oil incorporated into the micelles should be below 30 wt.% to obtain a liquid and fluid emulsion; a minimal value is above 0 %. However, as mentioned before, each concentration of coconut oil may be optimized for the mixture composition. The oil-to-surfactant ratio (O/S) may be between 4 and 10. The surfactant blend may be around 2 to 5 wt.% to avoid increasing the viscosity. The droplet size of a typical mixture containing the Tween 80 and Span 80 blend (as the example 7 in Table 5) is around 3.27 ^m, measured using a Malvern Mastersizer 2000 instrument. The effect on the hyphae includes swelling and coating according to SEM images. [0202] Any of the fungal-derived textiles described herein may be formed by including an additional crosslinking step following fermentation (e.g., post-fermentation). Although animal- derived textiles such as leather may be crosslinked using vegetable tanning agents, such agents may be ill-suited for the fungal-derived textiles described herein and/or may result in an undesirable amount of waste and industrial byproducts. Conventional crosslinking consists of an interaction scheme by hydrogen bonds using polyphenolic molecules of plant origin. The use of natural tanning is a widely used strategy in the leather industry. [0203] Such conventional tanning techniques may be used; preliminary tests showed that the mycotextiles described herein may be submerged for 5 to 7 days in 2% w/w tannic acid solution. As seen in the scanning electron microscopy image of FIG. 19, taken of a prototype material prepared with a commercial strain of G. lucidum (SB-0000), the treatment with tannic acid causes compaction of the hyphae in the most superficial levels of the mycelial layer (FIG. 19A). FIG.19B shows that the mycelial layer (in the outermost areas of the material) is slightly separated from the layer/scaffold located in the center of the material, suggesting that the mycelial layer is detaching from the supporting textile (delamination) in this example. [0204] FIG. 20 shows an example of a Raman scattering spectrum of a material such as that shown in FIGS. 19A-19B, showing the chemical changes experienced by the “control” (non- optimized) fungal strain G. lucidum (SB-0000) after crosslinking with tannic acid. The bands at 1490 and 1580 cm -1 are characteristic of the amide groups from the chitin group involved in the crosslinking are shown highlighted in the dot-dashed lines. Meanwhile, the appearance of signals around 3000 cm -1 (stretching of the OH bond) evidenced the presence of phenolic groups from the tannic acid used as a crosslinking agent. The tensile strength values achieved after applying this strategy were considerably higher. However, this treatment appears to cause delamination of the mycelial layer, as reflected in the microscopy images. This means that this strategy is very efficient in achieving cross-linking and hyphae but may be too aggressive for the final aesthetic characteristics. Nanoparticle Crosslinking [0205] Surprisingly, the inventors have found that including nanoparticles within the fungal material may dramatically and unexpectedly enhance the stability and mechanical properties of the fungal-derived textiles described herein, including the tensile strength and modulus as well as the tear strength and abrasion resistance. Functionalized nanoparticles may be added to the material following fermentation. The functionalized nanoparticles may be selected to cross-link with the cell wall material readily and controllably, e.g., chitin (or chitosan). This crosslinking strategy may include incorporating reactive functionalities via the inorganic nanoparticles, which, in addition to functioning as a carrier (crosslinking bridge), can impart other characteristics such as thermal stability due to their inorganic nature. Moreover, nanoparticle-assisted crosslinking may provide greater versatility by adsorbing functional interest groups on these nanoparticles. [0206] The use of functionalized nanoparticles provides several advantages when controlling the crosslinking process and may be modulated by controlling variables such as the density of functional groups on the nanoparticles, the number of nanoparticles (carrier), and the size of the nanoparticles, etc. The size of the nanoparticles may be modified during formation, e.g., by varying the stoichiometric ratios between the reagents, which will allow control of the separation between the hyphae. The shape of the nanoparticles may also be selected, including spherical, non- spherical, ovoid, filamentous, non-filamentous, rod, sickle, etc. [0207] The crosslinking agent used with the nanoparticles can be modified depending on the chemical functionality of the cell wall, which in turn may depend on the fungal strains used. This may allow unprecedented advantages in tailoring the fungal-derived textile's cross-linking strategies. Additionally, incorporating functionalized nanostructures may provide novel qualities to the material, such as magnetism, fluorescence, fire resistance, and/or mechanical resistance, among others. [0208] FIG. 21 schematically illustrates one example of a nanoparticle, showing functionalization and incorporation into a mycotextile as described herein. In FIG. 21 the nanoparticle (NP) is shown as a spherical silicon oxide (SiO 2 ) nanoparticle. Such particles may be prepared by the Stöber-Fink-Bohn method, described below. In this example, nanoparticles (nanospheres) of 500 nm were functionalized with (3-aminopropyl triethoxy) silane (APTES) to confer amino terminations on the surface. These moieties allow altering the surface charge through variations in the pH of the medium where they are dispersed. Subsequently, phosphate groups were incorporated, taking advantage of the electrostatic interactions. These reactive polyphosphate groups will act as connectors between the protonated amide groups and/or the deacetylated amido groups (chitin transformed into chitosan), e.g., in the cell wall. Additionally, this functionality may involve polysaccharides that are also part of the fungal cell wall, which may prevent aggressive deacetylation steps for the mycelium. [0209] In general, any appropriate nanoparticle may be used, not limited to SiO 2 nanoparticles. For example, ceramic materials, such as TiO 2 , ZnO, SnO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , Fe 3 O 4 either porous or non-porous and, nano-composites derived from these, may be used and may beneficially provide thermal resistance, photo-resistance, magnetism, and other properties. Polymeric particles could be used as well; some examples include (but are not limited to): zein, alginate, chitosan, latex, poly(lactide) (PLA), poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) copolymers, poly (ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL), etc. These nanoparticles may be preferred, for instance, for the encapsulation of some aromatic compounds or thermoregulators. Likewise, metallic nanoparticles such as Au, Ag, Cu, Pt may be used, and may convey antimicrobial and self-cleaning and electrical properties. Carbon-based nanoparticles such as carbon nanofibers, single or multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, and carbon spheres may provide electrical conductivity. Any combination among these different materials may achieve multifunctional mycotextiles. [0210] In general, the nanoparticles may be easily functionalized to ensure and assist in their fixation on the material. In general, neither the nanoparticles nor the resulting fungal-derived textile is environmentally toxic or harmful to human health. Thus, the nanoparticles described herein may modulate one or more additional properties of the fungal-derived textile, such as thermal resistance, photo-resistance, magnetism, encapsulation, thermoregulation, conductivity, self-cleaning, superhydrophobicity, omniphobicity, pollutants capture, luminescence, UV-barrier. [0211] Although the crosslinking particles described herein are referred to herein as nanoparticles and may preferably have a diameter of between about 60 and 600 nm, in some examples, this component may more correctly and generically be referred to in any of the examples described herein as crosslinking particles. [0212] As mentioned above, any range of sizes of nanoparticles may be used. For example, the nanoparticles may generally be less than 1 um in diameter (e.g., largest/longest diameter), making them invisible to the naked eye and sufficiently small to penetrate and incorporate into the materials described herein. For example, the nanoparticles may be between about 10 and 650 nm (e.g., between 60-600 nm, between 420-630 nm, between 150-400 nm, etc.). In some examples, the nanoparticles are about 200 nm in diameter. In some examples, the properties (e.g., optical properties) may be tuned with the size of the particle. For example, the nanoparticles used herein may have a mean diameter of between 60 and 600 nm. Particles below 60 may result in cell endocytosis, and above 600 nm may not provide stable suspensions. [0213] In some cases, the nanoparticles are spherical. However, the shape is not relevant for the property described herein. For instance, carbon nanotubes or nanofibers can also be used and may provide mechanical reinforcement. Amorphous silica products, such as aerosil ® , precipitated silica, or silica gel, could be used as reinforcements. Similarly, porous (e.g., meso, micro, or macroporous) nanoparticles (including but not limited to SiO 2 particles) may be used. [0214] In all of these examples, the nanoparticles may be functionalized; functionalization is critical because it provides relevant properties that may be absent in the original material and may guarantee the fixation of the nanoparticles within the material. In the particular case of phosphate moieties, functionalizing agents may also include 3-(Trihydroxysilyl)propyl methylphosphonate, sodium polyphosphate, and phosphorous acid. For example, the number of phosphate groups incorporated on the SiO 2 surface may be optimized for each case. Silica is one of the most studied and one of the most industrialized ceramic supports. Several agents are known whose adsorption on the silica surface has been confirmed and will allow the development of a wide variety of different configurations. Some examples include: polyamines (e.g., Polyethylenimine) to capture cations, H 2 S, CO 2 , or acid vapors. Epoxy silanes (e.g., (3-Glycidyloxypropyl)trimethoxysilane) may be used as coupling agents to improve the bond strength of some organic resins with the mycelium. Alkyl silanes (e.g., Chloro(dimethyl)octylsilane) for superhydrophobicity. Methacrylate silanes (e.g., 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane) may increase color adhesion. Other examples of functionalizing agents are: 3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl isocyanate, vinyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, bis(3-triethoxysilylpropyl)tetrasulfide, etc. [0215] Nanoparticles may be applied to the material (e.g., the putative fungal-derived textile) by soaking or spraying. For example, soaking the material in a colloidal suspension of the nanoparticles and/or by spraying (atomization). The concentration range evaluated was between about 0.1 g/L and 1 g/L, being the preferred concentration 1 g/L. Spraying (atomization) of functionalized nanoparticles a 10-times increase regarding the soaking approach should be applied. [0216] In general, the use of nanoparticles in the methods and compositions (e.g., fungal- derived textiles) described herein takes advantage of crosslinking of the hyphae of the mycelium mat layer(s) in the textile. As described above, the nanoparticles are functionalized, e.g., on a surface of the nanoparticle, so that they bind to chitin within the hyphae, effectively crosslinking the hyphae. Therefore, the nanoparticles may act as a crosslinking intermediary, crosslinking to multiple hyphae. This process may be considered a green (e.g., environmentally friendly) nanocrosslinking scheme. Nanoparticle Example [0217] For example, the nanoparticles described herein may be SiO 2 nanospheres that may be formed by the Stöber-Fink-Bohn method. This exemplary method may consist of the controlled hydrolysis of an organic silicon compound in an alkaline medium. During a second stage, the condensation of the monomeric units causes the growth of the SiO 2 polymer network (Si-O-Si) that self-assembles in the geometric shape that provides the highest area-volume ratio (spheres). The components required for this synthesis are a few: tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), ammonium hydroxide, ethanol, and water. The synthesis is usually completed after 120 min followed by the corresponding washes to neutralize the medium's pH and drying at 120 °C. By varying the molar ratio between the components, the final diameter of the particles can be easily changed. To obtain 10 g of particles, a procedure such as the outlined below may be used: in a 1 L Erlenmeyer flask, a mixture of 355 mL of absolute ethanol, 25 mL of deionized water, and 90 mL of technical grade ammonium hydroxide (28-30%) may be homogenized under vigorous stirring (approx.500 rpm) and at room temperature. Subsequently, 30 mL of TEOS may be added drop by drop. The solution may change from colorless to cloudy and then milky white over 30 minutes. It may be left under constant stirring until the completion of 120 min of reaction. 10 mL of concentrated HCl may be added very carefully to stop the reaction. After a few minutes, the flask contents may be transferred to 50 mL Falcon tubes and centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 10 min. The clear supernatant may then be removed and replaced with a 0.5 M HCl solution. The mixture may be vortexed to resuspend the particles and re-centrifuged. The clear supernatant liquid may then be removed, replaced with deionized water, and re-suspended using a vortex and centrifugation. This step may be repeated until verifying neutral pH in the remaining liquid. Finally, the white solid obtained may be placed in an oven under an air atmosphere at 120 °C for 2 h. The obtained particles may be seeded in an aluminum sample holder through carbon tape and taken to a scanning electron microscope for morphological analysis. As shown in FIG. 22A, spherical particles are obtained with the distribution of diameters represented in the graph of FIG.22B. The frequency of particles is shown as a function of diameter. Measurement deviation is 8 %, indicating slight size variation. Energy- dispersive X-ray microanalysis told the expected composition for SiO 2 . [0218] Nanoparticles may be functionalized in any appropriate manner. The functionalization of the particles may refer to the adsorption of groups of interest for the interaction with a specific chemical functionality existing in the fungal cell wall. In some examples, an amino functionality may be incorporated as a “binder” for either citrate and/or phosphate groups. These functionalities were evaluated for more interactions between the hyphae to promote crosslinking and were found to strengthen the mycelium mechanically. Once an amino functionality is covalently bound to the nanoparticle's surface, the interaction with the polycarboxylic or polyphosphate groups will occur electrostatically, controlling the pH of the medium where the particles are dispersed. This approach serves as a proof of concept regarding the feasibility of using SiO 2 spheres as a vehicle for different chemical groups of interest. In one example, a functionalization scheme may incorporate APTES followed by incorporating phosphate groups. This is illustrated schematically in FIG.23. [0219] In FIG. 23, amino groups were incorporated into the nanoparticles by a grafting procedure. As an example, each 0.5 g of SiO 2 spheres were dispersed in 50 mL of dry toluene, then 5 mL of (3-aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) was added, and the mixture was heated under reflux at 80 °C for 12 h. The suspension was filtered, washed twice with acetone, and the solid was dried in an oven under airflow. FIG.24A shows an example of the ATR / FTIR spectra for SiO 2 and SiO 2 -NH 2 . The functionalized particles show the vibrational modes corresponding to the stretching vibrations of the methylene group -CH 2 (2930, 2860 cm -1 ), confirming the presence of propyl chains corresponding to APTES molecules. The band for NH bending at 1560 cm -1 also ensures the incorporation of the amino groups in the sample. [0220] In another example, phosphate groups may be incorporated into the nanoparticles. For example, SiO 2 -NH 2 particles were suspended in 50 mL of water with the help of an ultrasonic bath, and then 0.5 mL of polyphosphoric acid were added and left stirring at 800 rpm for 6 h at room temperature. The solid was separated by centrifugation at 8,000 rpm for 10 min and washed three times with distilled water. Raman spectrum of FIG. 24B shows the (PO 4 3- ) phosphates characteristic vibrations overlapped with the broad signal around 550 cm -1 corresponding to the Si-O-Si bond of the support simulated as a dotted line. The main bands are assigned to: symmetric stretching mode (ν1) at 960 cm −1 ; antisymmetric (ν3) at 1070 cm −1 , bending mode ν2 and ν4 around 550 cm −1 and 610 cm -1 , respectively; symmetric and antisymmetric deformation modes between 400 and 500 cm -1 ; stretching band (A1) of the P-OH bond near 800 cm -1 . [0221] The functionalized nanoparticles may be added to the fungal-derived textile material following the fermentation, as mentioned above. Although the discussion above described the impregnating with the nanoparticles after the internal wetting step, in some examples, the nanoparticles may be added/impregnated into the material before internal wetting or concurrent with internal wetting. [0222] In one example, a prototype fungal-derived textile may be formed as described above using fungal strain 0006 (see above) for pre-fermentation and fermentation stages, and an activated scaffold/layer of carbon fiber may be used during the BIOrganic foam procedure. Following fermentation, the material may be internally wetted, as described, and nanoparticles (e.g., SiO 2 particles) may be added. This example demonstrates the interaction between the proposed functional groups and the mycelium. After immersion for more than 15 min and less than 24h, in an acidic suspension of the functionalized nanoparticles (1 g/L), the prototype was allowed to dry in the air to 20 % moisture content and later subjected to a pressing process at 70 °C for 60 s on both sides of the textile, while applying sufficient pressure to allow the heat to diffuse inside the mat. The soaking with the acidic suspension of nanoparticles was sufficient for incorporating the nanoparticles and the cross-linking between the hyphae. This was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. At the same time, the interaction between the phosphates and the acetamide group was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. Changes in the thermal behavior of the material were analyzed by measuring the respective thermograms under N 2 flow in a range from room temperature to 1000 °C. These analyzes were performed in a TA Instruments SDT Q600 equipment, using 90 μL alumina crucibles, at a heating rate of 10 °C/min, with a UHP nitrogen gas flow of 100 mL/min. [0223] These results are shown in FIGS. 25A-25D. In FIG. 25A, the scanning electron microscopy image confirms the presence of the particles, immediately apparent as electron-dense spheres or dots located between the walls of the hyphae, achieving the desired effect of bringing the hyphae closer together (e.g., by crosslinking). Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis shows the signals of the main elements present in the sample, in this case, carbon, oxygen, and silicon. Under the conditions described before, the chemical analysis at different points of several samples indicates a concentration by weight of SiO 2 of (3.3 ± 0.9) %, as shown in FIG. 25B. Analyzing the position and intensity of the bands relative to acetamide groups in the infrared spectra (the stretching vibrations of the NH bond around 1500 cm -1 and the C=O bond around 1700 cm -1 ), it was possible to determine that these moieties are involved in the interaction of the cell wall with the nanoparticles. This is illustrated in FIG.25C. This interaction is possible through electrostatic forces between the protonated amide and the negatively charged polyphosphate groups on the nanoparticle's surface, mediated by the acidic medium. [0224] FIG. 25D shows an exemplary thermogravimetric profile for the fungal strain (e.g., wild fungal strain 0006), showing changes in its thermal behavior after incorporating the nanoparticles. The total weight change in the nanoparticles after heating up to 1000 °C is only 11%. In the material without nanoparticles, a first mass loss of 5.3 % occurs in the range from room temperature to 200 °C, attributed to the evaporation of free and chemically bound water. Above 200 °C, silica undergoes dehydroxylation of the surface silanol (Si-OH) groups, causing the rest of the loss. On the other hand, mycelium alone presents a significant loss of mass in the studied range due to its organic nature. The first change occurs from room temperature to 250 °C, also associated with the loss of water molecules, representing 26% in weight. After, a mass loss of 36% occurs between 200 - 375 °C, possibly due to the breakdown of organic constituents (e.g., amino acids, polysaccharides, chitin, etc.). Finally, a third mass loss occurs between 375 - 1000 °C, due to further degradation of the primary residual carbon, which produces methane (CH 4 ) and the consequent formation of a carbonaceous residue (biochar). When the nanoparticles are incorporated, the thermal profile changes completely. In this case, the most significant decrease in mass is associated with water evaporation and occurs between room temperature and 110 °C, representing 60% of the loss. Then, between 110 - 250 °C, a second water loss occurs, possibly due to more strongly associated water molecules, representing 14 % of the mass loss. Subsequently, between 250 - 1000 °C, the material only experiences a mass loss of 19 %, which is lower than the observed in the mycelium alone. The onset temperature for this event is lower than that observed in the mycelium alone, suggesting that the decomposition mechanism is different. As expected, incorporating these more refractory particles confers thermal stability to the material. [0225] When mixed with another fungal strain such as 0046, the nanoparticles described in the previous example are also incorporated to the hyphae as observed in FIG 26 A. As 0046 strain shows hyphae with a slightly higher mean diameter than the 0006 strain, the effect of the nanoparticles may be less evident at the selected size. However as highlighted in the enlarged microscope image in FIG 26 B, the nanoparticles locate between two hyphae mediating in the approach between them. [0226] An organic functionalizing agent such as zein (a prolamin obtained from milled corn) may be adsorbed at the silica surface to incorporate carboxylic and amino moieties from the protein residues. The amino acid profile of zein is primarily made of hydrophobic types, including leucine (19%), proline (10%) and alanine (12%). But it also contains polar acidic amino acids such as glutamic acid (20%). This approach requires from 0.1 to 1 wt.% of SiO 2 spheres dispersed in ethanolic solutions of zein with concentrations ranging from 0.015 to 1.5 wt. % at pH values ranging from 4 to 8 in a period from 5 in to 24 hours. A synthesis mixing zein and SiO 2 concentrations of 0.15 and 0.1 wt. % respectively, at neutral pH value under continuous stirring at room temperature for 12 hours yields the particles shown in FIG. 27A. The weight loss under nitrogen atmosphere around 350 °C observed in the thermogravimetric analysis of FIG. 27B indicates that the surface zein loading was around 2 wt.%, regarding the mass of the SiO 2 . The interaction of these particles with prototypes from 0006 and 0046 strains shows a higher degree of aggregation between the particles which affects its distribution between the hyphae as shown in the SEM images of FIG. 27C. The FTIR spectra shown in FIG. 27D comparing the 0046 strain before and after the interaction with the nanoparticles functionalized with zein reveals two small signals at 760 and 900 cm -1 (asterisks) related to the symmetric stretching of the Si-O bond. The disappearance of the peaks around 1480 and 1580 cm -1 suggests that the amide moieties are involved in the interaction. Moreover, the apparition of the peak around 1740 cm -1 suggests the incorporation of carboxylic groups, possibly from the zein glutamic acid. [0227] In another example, a different morphology of an inorganic material was tested. Iron oxide nanorods with approximate dimensions of 200 x 500 nm (wide x large) organically functionalized with zein as described for SiO 2 spheres are observed in FIG. 28A. This functionalization strategy does not change the morphology of the nanorods achieving homogenous nitrogen incorporations of around 4.2 wt. % according to the EDS analysis presented in FIG 28B. The functionalized nanorods mixed with a fungal mycotextile obtained with the 0006 strain shows two distinctive regions highlighted at the right side of the FIG. 28C, in one region the particles appear agglomerated in small groups, while in the other regions they intertwine with fungal mycelium. The mean Fe 2 O 3 content in the sample is 0.86 ± 0.1 wt. % using this approach. FTIR spectra of the mycelium with and without particles as analyzed in frequency regions I and II reveal two major changes: in region I, the shift to lower frequencies of the bands at 599905 cm -1 related to Fe-O and Fe-OH stretching vibrations in Fe 2 O 3 indicates a change in the chemical environment of the iron. In region II, the apparition of the peak around 1710 and 1740 cm -1 is related to carbonyl groups in carboxyl moieties. [0228] In another example, zein spherical nanoparticles synthesized from an antisolvent method worked as organic crosslinkers. For this method, 100 g of milled corn was mixed with ethanol solution 70 v/v % at 70°C for 1 hour under continuous agitation. The resulting yellow solution is poured in distilled water in a volume ratio of 1:3, the obtained solid is recovered by centrifugation at 12000 rpm during 10 min. SEM image in FIG 29A shows a distribution of the material with particles size between 200 nm and 1000 nm, while FTIR spectrum at FIG. 29B reveal that the vibration bands of the nanoparticles obtained using such antisolvent method matches with the bands of a commercial zein (Merck, product code: Z3625). TGA analysis show a weight loss of 93.15% centered in two temperature ranges, the first of 13.15% around 60°C related to water loss, and the second one around 350°C with a weight loss of 80% related to the decomposition of the organic substance that perfectly matches the profile obtained for pure zein as observed in a previous example. The remaining 6.86% after 1000°C corresponds to ashes content in the sample. [0229] An SEM image of the organic nanoparticles interacting with 0006 mycelia in a typical prototype is shown in FIG.29C, at four different locations of the sample, to confirm the presence of the zein nanoparticles along the hyphae structure. It is observed that zein nanoparticles tend to agglomerate but they show great interaction with the surface. These particles are obtained with an easy strategy able to provide nanoscale carrier systems. [0230] The nanoparticles described herein may be used as an environmentally-friendly (e.g., “green”) alternative to traditional tanning applications and may also confer additional desired characteristics to the materials described herein, referred to as smart mycotextiles. For example, forming the nanoparticles by growing porous SiO 2 onto nano-magnetite would provide cross- linking nanoparticles that have a core-shell structure that may be responsive to magnetic stimuli. Another possible application is the capture of greenhouse gases, such as CO 2 , by changing the functionalizing agent for branched amides. Decorating the carrier with photoactive nanoparticles such as TiO 2 or ZnO may allow self-cleaning textiles. Incorporating conductive fibers, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, or nanofibers, could provide a conductive fibrous composite able to transmit electric signals useful to collect environmental or health data. Pressing [0231] As mentioned above, the material may be pressed (e.g., ironed) and/or stamped when forming. Pressing may be used to generate a more uniform thickness and/or density when fabricating the material. For example, one of the quality parameters of traditional leather is a homogeneous thickness. Pressing may be used with the materials described herein in order to provide homogeneity in the thickness of the materials. Pressing can occur through different mechanisms, either by mechanical pressing, e.g., using a parallel plate press, vacuum supported, or rollers. Rollers are commonly used in the textile industry to handle considerable lengths of material. Pressing may also be used to form a pattern or patterns into the material; for example, pressing can add a pattern that simulates grainy textures similar to animal leather. [0232] The amount of force used for pressing and the temperature and manner of pressing may be within a predetermined range to avoid damaging the material. The pressure applied during the pressing process may be selected so that it does not damage the integrity of the mycelial layer(s). For example, the pressure may be between 20 and 60 Ton (between 20-55 Ton, between 20-50 Ton, between 20-45 Ton, between 20-40 Ton, between 20-35 Ton, between 20-30 Ton, less than 60 Ton, less than 55 Ton, less than 50 Ton, less than 45 Ton, less than 40 Ton, less than 35 Ton, less than 30 Ton, etc.). In some examples, the pressure applied is between 25 and 40 Ton when the support layer/scaffold is polyester or cotton. Pressing plates may include an embossing pattern to impart surface texture and appearance, such as but not limited to a grain pattern, in the mycotextile (leather) surface. Chemical activation with mordant [0233] Any of the materials described herein may be dyed or colored, and in some examples, a mordant may be used. In general, the fungal-derived textiles described herein may be dyed, and homogeneous and lasting impregnation of color is possible, incorporating specific molecules that help fix the dye in the fiber; these molecules are known as mordants. Mordants have been traditionally used as part of the color/dyeing process for modifying or fixing a color. They may include polymeric substances such as tannic acid and polyamide or ionic substances such as potassium alum, chrome alum, sodium chloride, and certain salts of aluminum, chromium, copper, iron, iodine, potassium, sodium, tungsten, and tin. Many colorants are applied in conjunction with substances that act as mordants, such as alum, potassium bichromate, tannin, and copper acetate. [0234] Potassium alum, which is a double-hydrated aluminum and potassium salt (KAl(SO 4 )2.12H 2 O) may be dissolved in the dye bath itself or it could be incorporated into the fabric beforehand to be impregnated into the fibers before coloring. In some fungal-derived textiles described herein, an aqueous solution with a concentration of between 1 and 10% w/w may be used. For example, an aqueous mordant solution may be sprayed on the fabric before staining/dyeing. [0235] In any of the fungal-derived textiles described herein, polyamide resin may be combined with the dye in a proportion ranging 1 to 10% in an alcoholic solution. Polyamides act as a polymeric organic mordant or dye absorbers compatible with various types of polymeric fiber- forming materials. For instance, linear polyamides of relatively low melting point from hydroxy aromatic dicarboxylic acids and diamines are useful as mordants or dye absorbers in rendering fibers composed of cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate, acrylonitrile polymers, polyamides, polyesters and polyhydrocarbon polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene. Polyamides resins are linear condensation polymers with a high degree of crystallinity with repeating amide links in their molecular chain. Polyamides are engineering polymers characterized by exceptional hardness, good impact strength, and high abrasion resistance. Their excellent mechanical characteristics may be the result of the amide links leading to internal hydrogen bonds between the different polymer chains. Biobased polyamides that are commercially available are either based on sebacic acid or undecenoic acid, both of which can be derived from castor oil. Dyeing [0236] The fungal-derived textiles described herein may be used without significant coloring (dyeing), particularly if the color of the fungal strain used is desired. However, any of these materials described herein may be colored or dyed. Water-based dyes, or in a gel form, have excellent coverage and can be spread directly on the fungal-derived textile material. In addition, such dyes can be applied by soaking or spraying, including spraying separately or together with the mordant. The dyes that may be used may have one or more of the following components: water and/or, propylene glycol and/or, glycerin and/or, a hydrophilic biopolymer (e.g., starch), and artificial dyes (e.g., Red allura AC, red N° 40, Azorubine, red N° 3, Tartrazine, yellow N° 5, Twilight yellow, yellow N°6-, Brilliant blue FCP, blue N° 1, indigotin, blue N° 2, etc., alone or in combinations among them). The post-fermentation processes described herein (including internal wetting, etc.), as well as the presence of biopolymers and plasticizers, means that the dyes or colorant (with or without mordant) may be used without dehydrating the material. [0237] In some examples, the dyes may contain metal complex dyes for dyeing and finishing leather in a composition below 5 wt.% in alcohol solution using a convenient mordant according to the examples described above. In some examples, the application of these compositions could be performed either by immersion in a dye alcoholic bath for less than 180 s or by spraying under air pressure when polyamide resin is used as a mordant. External wetting/humidity barrier [0238] Any of the materials described herein may also include an external wetting step and the resulting humidity barrier. For example, a humidity barrier may be applied to any of these materials by applying an external wetting composition to the outer surfaces (both surfaces or just one surface). [0239] In general, the external wetting composition may include a biopolymer capable of forming biofilms near room temperature. For example, the external wetting composition may include a soluble polymer (e.g., chitosan, starch, gelatin, agar, polylactide, polyhydroxyalkanoates, zein, etc.) at proportions between 0.2-30 %, preferable between 1 to 3 %, a plasticizer (e.g., glycerol, polyglycols, polyalkylene oxides, or polyadipates) at proportions < 1%, a wax (e.g., beeswax, carnauba wax, candelilla wax, etc.) at 50% or less (e.g., between about 1%-50%, 10%- 50%, 15%-50%, 20%-50%, 25%-50%, 30%-50%, etc. and, an oil (e.g., coconut, silicon, linseed, soybean oil, etc.) in proportions less than 20% (e.g., between 0.1% to 20%, 1% to 20%, 10% to 20%, etc.) preferably, between 1 to 15, most preferably between 1 to 5%, compounded as a room- temperature paste. Optionally no plasticizer may be used, no wax may be used and/or no oil may be used. [0240] Developing an efficient external moisture barrier may be helpful to prevent moisture loss that leads to material dehydration and fracture. External wetting compositions may include glycerol, sorbitol, or polylactic acid (a thermoplastic polyester). The moisture barrier should ideally form a thin layer on the surface that does not hide the appearance of the surface provided by the mycelium. The moisture barrier should act as a barrier both for the entry of water vapor and the exit of internal moisture and may prevent or reduce color loss. Although natural waxes have been suggested for both animal-derived textiles and fungal-derived textiles, compositions including natural waxes have been difficult to use for this type of application, partly because they are difficult to apply due to their solid nature. Ideally, an external wetting composition would comprise a mixture having the rheological properties appropriate to distribute the waxes homogeneously on the surface with little effort. [0241] For example, any of these external wetting compositions may optimally include a biopolymer (e.g., polysaccharides or proteins) capable of forming biofilms near room temperature. Described herein are external wetting compositions comprising a plasticizing wax that has been specifically formulated and adapted from use with the fungal-derived textiles described herein. For example, a biopolymer may include chitosan, which is conveniently a by-product of the method for forming the textiles described herein. In one example, approximately 80 g of the external wetting composition (wax) may be formulated by: dissolving 1 g of medium molecular weight chitosan in 1 mL of glacial acetic acid and 50 mL of water. To ensure complete dissolution, the mixture may be left under stirring at 25 °C overnight. 0.2 g of glycerol may then be incorporated. 34 g of cosmetic grade beeswax may be melted at 80 °C, and the chitosan solution may be brought to the same temperature as the wax. Under high agitation (10,000 rpm), the molten wax may be gradually incorporated into the composition. 3 g of coconut oil may be incorporated at 80 °C and the mixture left under stirring for 5 min. The material may form a white fluid paste, which at 70 °C completely melts into a transparent film. For its application, only the application area may be preheated, and a portion of wax may be well dispersed onto the material so that when it melts, it can be expanded over the entire surface. For example, on a 10 x 10 cm mat, approximately 2 g of the external wetting composition may adequately cover the surface. The external wetting composition (wax) may be spread onto the fungal-derived textile surfaces with the help of a roller press or an iron. FIG.30A shows a view of a cross-section of a prototype fungal- derived textile, fabricated using the fungal strain 0006 and processed with each of the post- fermentation techniques described above. In FIG. 30B the image shows a section through the material imaged using a scanning electron microscope. The outermost layers of about 40 μm correspond to the layer of external wetting composition (e.g., plasticizing wax) formulated as described above to protect the surface of the textile. [0242] In another example, the external wetting composition may optimally include a protein such as zein or pea protein. A probable composition may include zein protein at 1 wt.% in a mixture of ethanol and glycerol (1:1). The zein mixture can be spread or sprayed on the surface. Another zein composition involves a pH adjustment up to 12 and a water-glycerol mixture (3:1). FIG. 31A shows the transversal cut of a material prepared as described herein, using the 0006 fungal strain, and applying the post-treatment scheme described herein, including internal wetting, crosslinking, pressing, activation with mordant, dyeing, and external wetting based on zein. FIG.31B shows the homogeneity obtained on the surface of the material (top view of the same material). [0243] In any of the materials described herein, the material's outer surface (e.g., including the external wetting/humidity layer) may include one or more texturing components (e.g., texturizing particles). The texturizing particles may be texturizing beads. For example, the outer surface may include polymeric expandable/swellable beads (e.g., “microbeads”, such as EXPANCEL ® beads), comprising ethylenically unsaturated monomers that may be incorporated into the humidity barrier or as an external topcoat to confer a new texture to the material. For example, microbeads may be distributed across the surface by suspending the microbeads in an acrylic emulsion. For example, polyethylene adipate/polymethylene methacrylate, P(EA/MMA). This could be applied as a last step of the post-processing scheme, e.g., after the external wetting/humidity barrier is applied. Alternatively, the texturing material (e.g., microbeads) may be incorporated and applied as part of the external wetting composition. [0244] A texturizing material may include particles (texturing particles) having any shape (beads, spherical, oval, elongate/fibrous, etc.) and may be of any size, including a range of sizes (e.g., diameters between 1 µm and about 500 µm (e.g., between 10 µm and 900 µm, between 10 µm and 500 µm, between 20 µm and 400 µm, etc.). As mentioned, the texturing particles may be swellable/expandable. Mechanical Properties [0245] In general, the fungal-derived textile materials described herein include many beneficial characteristics that are apparent from the way they are manufactured. For example, the fungal-derived textiles described herein may include at least three layers, including the support layer/scaffold surrounded on either side by cross-linked mycelium strata, and one or both outer surfaces may be a humidity layer. The crosslinked mycelium strata may be interdigitated into the support layer/scaffold and typically are crosslinked by the inclusion of functionalized (crosslinking) nanoparticles. [0246] Fungal-derived textiles described herein may have superior mechanical properties, particularly compared with other textiles incorporating fungal material. Fungal mycelium alone shows tensile strength values below 1 MPa. In contrast, this parameter varies between 8 and 20 MPa in cowhide leather. Synthetic leather can have values of 10-15 MPa. Other characteristics, such as elongation after the break, deacetylation strength, or abrasion resistance, are exceptionally good for cowhide. The materials described herein include features that may match or exceed these characteristic properties. Preliminary tests of the fungal-derived textiles described herein identified the mechanical characteristics, including tensile strength (TS) and elongation percentage before rupture (E %), according to the ASTM D2209 standard. The tests were carried out in a universal machine of the Shimadzu brand model AGX Plus, with a 1 kN load cell, speed of 254 mm/min, and pneumatic jaws with neoprene faces to avoid damage to the samples. Tear Strength (TeS) was also tested using the same equipment, applying ASTM D4704-13 standards. In both cases, the specimens of each sample were obtained utilizing a clamp or mold with the corresponding geometry requested by the standard. Abrasion resistance (AR) was examined according to the ASTM D3884 Taber abrasion resistance test. A TABER model 5155 abrasive was used for these measurements at a rotation speed of 120 rpm equipped with a wheel load of 500 g and following 1000 rotation cycles. [0247] The results obtained are compiled in tables 6 to 11. Table 6. Effect of the fungal strain on tensile strength and elongation of the mycotextile. Table 7. Effect of the activated scaffold on freshly harvested mycotextiles (no post-treatment) NM = not measured *Detected tearing Table 8. Effect of the nanoparticle type and functionalization on 0006 fungal strain prototypes crosslinking to obtain a wild mycotextile (no finishing) NA = Not applies, P = polyphosphate, Z = zein, all examples use a concentration of 1 gL- of the nanoparticles suspension.
Table 9. Effect of the Fe 2 O 3 nanorods concentration to obtain a wild mycotextile using 006 fungal strain (without both nanoemulsion and finishing) Table 10. Effect of the dyeing process in 0006 fungal strain prototypes obtained with the post- treatment scheme based on internal humectation with coconut oil emulsion, assisted-nano crosslinking using SiO 2 / P nanoparticles and zein coating. N A = Not applies.
Table 11. Effect of the scaffold reinforcement to obtain a wild mycotextile using 0006 fungal strain with superb tensile strength values. No = No reinforcement, NM = not measured, GF = glass fiber, CF = carbon fiber, PAF = polyaramid fiber, CI = 100% Cotton Interlining. *Detected tearing in one of three replicates (33,33%). [0248] As shown, values of some mechanical characteristics measured in different prototypes may vary depending on the scaffold/layer material (e.g., cotton, glass fiber, carbon fiber, etc.), as well as the fungal strain used (strain 0006 include properties described above such as the percentage of chitin and additional reactive sites), and the use of nanoparticles (NPs) as a crosslinking agent, and the fermentation strategy used. Table 6 shows an example material using the commercial strain G. lucidum (SB-0000, “GL”), which was formed in a manner that was otherwise equivalent to the wild fungal strain (e.g., strain 0006 having a chitin fraction of 45 % or greater), without crosslinking had worse mechanical properties (TS = 5.4 MPa) as compared with the fungal strain 0006 (TS = 6.7 MPa). The TS value was lower than that of the prototype obtained with our 0006 strain because the wild fungal strain shows slightly larger diameter of the hyphae, higher chitin content and additional reactive carbonyl group providing, in sum, a greater number of crosslinking sites. In addition, wild fungal strains such as 0006 (e.g., having a chitin fraction ((1-6)-β-D-glucans plus chitin) of 45 to 80% and enriched for acetamide and/or amide groups) that were grown using the foam technique (e.g., the BIOrganic Foam). The treatment using tannic acid caused a significant effect on the commercial strain G. lucidum (SB-0000), reporting an increase of 106% in the TS and a decrease of 47% in E. When the conventional strategy (e.g., tannic acid) is used for 0006, TS increases from 6.7 MPa to 7.5 MPa, and E decreases by 3.8%. [0249] The effect of the scaffold in freshly harvested prototypes (without post-treatment) is shown in Table 7. As compared to pure mycelium, the use of non-reinforced chemically activated scaffolds increases the TS but also the E%. The option named as A2 (raw 100% cotton fabric) showed the lowest TS and E%. However, those scaffolds composed of cotton and polyester (50% and 65%) showed higher TS and E%, both increasing proportionally with the polyester content. [0250] The nanoparticle-assisted crosslinking was verified by varying the chemical nature of the nanoparticles and functionalizing agents (organic or inorganic), as well as the particle shape (nanospheres or nanorods). Table 8 compares the TS and E% for several prototypes from 0006 strain obtained by immersion in 0.1 wt.% suspensions of SiO 2 nanospheres, Fe 2 O 3 nanorods, or zein nanospheres without other treatment. The immersion in the silica spheres suspension drastically increases the tensile strength up to 53% (SiO 2 loading of 3.3 wt.% in the final material). The immersion in iron oxide nanorods causes a TS enhancement of 73% despite the content in the final material being less than the obtained with silica spheres (0.86 wt.%). Thus, iron oxide nanorods may have a higher effect on the reinforcement. When both particles (SiO 2 and Fe 2 O 3 ) are functionalized with zein, an organic functionalizing agent, the TS increases in 32% for SiO 2 / Z and 17% for Fe 2 O 3 / Z, respectively, probably because of the poor dispersion observed in SEM images. Thus, higher dispersion of particles into the hyphae will promote a higher effect on tensile strength values. Zein nanospheres also caused a low enhancement in tensile strength (19%). The result showed that all nanoparticles cause a decrease in elongation. The highest diminution in the elongation percentage was obtained when using iron oxide nanorods. [0251] The concentration of iron oxide nanorods in the suspension varied from 0.05 to 0.25 wt.%. Table 9 shows that TS enhances with the concentration of iron oxide nanorods while E% decreases with this. Higher content of iron oxide nanorods increases the density of the material as well as the hyphae´s intertwining, hence the tensile strength is increased. These results account for the nanoparticles-assisted crosslinking. [0252] The finishing strategy may also affect the mechanical properties. Table 10 summarizes tensile strength, elongation, tear strength, flexibility, and colorfastness of some examples using metal anilines and polyamide in the dyeing formula applied by spraying or dipping. Both strategies cause a slight increase in the TS and TeS but a slight decrease in E%. Dyeing by dipping increases TS in 16% and TeS in 22%. After the embossing TS increases in 37 % and TeS in 61%. However, E% only decreased between 9 to 10%. When the dyeing formula is applied by spraying TeS increased 11% while the elongation and TS decreased by 38% and 8%, respectively. Without being bound by theory, it is possible that the mordant in these examples caused an extra reinforcement because of the chemical closeness with the polysaccharides that make up the cell wall of fungus. Colorfastness is better when dipping strategy is used for dyeing the materials. An optimal value of 5 both dry and wet could be improved with other coating strategies. [0253] A1 scaffolds reinforced with inorganic fibers (e.g., glass, carbon, etc.), as observed in Table 11, resulted in prototypes with 5.2 and 24.0 MPa of TS. Glass fiber does not increase the tensile strength but drastically diminishes the E% to 21%, the TeS is the highest of the group (39 KN/m), and the AR exceeded 1000 abrasion cycles. The prototype obtained using a support layer/scaffold and carbon fiber as reinforcement, as described herein, has a tensile strength of 24.1 MPa, representing an increase of 458%, the elongation before breaking is 41%, the tear strength is 16 KN/m, and >1000 abrasion cycles. In other examples, A3 scaffolds reinforced with organic- based fibers such as polyaramid or cotton interlining show TS values of 5.8 and 27.6 MPa, respectively. Polyaramid fiber did not increase the TS but increased the TeS and decreased the E% in 59% and 13%. The incorporation of the cotton interlining into the prototype increased the TS in 331% and decreased the E% in 89%. Therefore, cotton interlining and carbon fiber may be particularly beneficial options that significantly enhance the mechanical properties of the mycotextile material. These values are similar to those used for animal and synthetic leather. [0254] The use of the nanoparticles for crosslinking in combination with the fungal strains having a chitin fraction of 45 to 80% and enriched for acetamide and/or amide groups provided a highly durable material as compared with other strains or without the use of the nanoparticles, dramatically decreasing or eliminating the separation between the support layer/scaffold and the mycelium strata. [0255] Thus, any of the fungal-derived textiles described herein may be reinforced with a material including (but not limited to) carbon fiber (CF) and/or cotton interlining, which may result in a tensile strength of > 23 MPa with the mycelium (e.g., 24 MPa or more). These materials may be suitable for applications requiring higher mechanical properties, such as automotive upholstery, shoes, bags, etc. For other applications, such as the apparel industry, tensile strength values between 5 to 10 MPa are sufficient. At the same time, elongation (20 - 40%) and tear strength (> 20 N) may be more relevant to ensure flexibility and resistance to tearing. Glass fiber reinforcement may also be used. [0256] The support layer/scaffold material may have a fabric weight of between about 100 and 600 g/m 2 , e.g., 100 to 200 g/m 2 for lighter textiles, between 200 and 400 g/m 2 for mid-weight textiles, and between about 400 to 600 g/m 2 for heavier textiles. In some cases, the support layer/scaffold may have a value of between about 130 to 150 g/m 2 . The support layer/scaffold material (without mycelium) may have any appropriate thickness. For example, the support layer/scaffold may have a thickness of around 0.25 mm; multiple layers may be used (e.g., two layers in some prototypes have a thickness of 0.50 mm). An example using two layers is shown in FIGS.19A-19B, obtained with G. lucidum SB-0000 (GL). [0257] The fungal-derived textiles described herein (including support layer/scaffold, mycelium, and humidity barrier) may have a thickness from about 0.5 to about 2.5 mm. The mycelium layer may contribute between about 0.1 to 1 mm on each side. The thickness on the two sides may be different (the side containing aerial mycelium may be thicker). The final fungal- derived textile may have an optimal thickness between about 1 - 2 mm for different apparel applications such as bags, shoes (upper shoe), belts, etc., as well as for upholstery. By promoting aerial mycelium development, the thickness of the textiles manufactured as described herein may be between 1 to 2 mm, depending on their application. [0258] The humidity barrier may be applied in any of these textiles in order to avoid excessive drying (that causes depletion of the mechanical properties) or, on the contrary, excessive wetting that could cause microbiological contamination (bacteria or fungi from the environment), accelerating the product's decomposition. The humidity barriers described herein may have a thickness of >10 and <100 microns. More than 100 microns may cause stiffness in the final product, and below 10 microns, there may be an insufficient barrier effect. [0259] It should be appreciated that all combinations of the foregoing concepts and additional concepts discussed in greater detail below (provided such concepts are not mutually inconsistent) are contemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein and may be used to achieve the benefits described herein. [0260] The process parameters and sequence of steps described and/or illustrated herein are given by way of example only and can be varied as desired. For example, while the steps illustrated and/or described herein may be shown or discussed in a particular order, these steps do not necessarily need to be performed in the order illustrated or discussed. The various example methods described and/or illustrated herein may also omit one or more of the steps described or illustrated herein or include additional steps in addition to those disclosed. [0261] As used herein, the terms “fungal-based textile”, “fungal-based textiles”, “mycotextile” or “mycotextiles” may be interchangeably used to refer to a biotextile made from fungal mycelium that colonize externally, internally, and within a scaffold (reinforced or not with organic or inorganic nanofillers, such as glass fiber, carbon fiber or cotton interlining, between others), that may have been previously activated to increase the affinity among the fungal hyphae and the vegetal layer, and which may be subsequently cross-linked using nanoparticles, as described herein, which may further enhance the mechanical properties of the material. These biotextiles may be internally moisturized, dyed, and coated with a humidity barrier that may allow both protection against humidity and wear, and a wide range of functionalities converting the final product into a functional and smart mycotextile. [0262] A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that any process or method disclosed herein can be modified in many ways. The process parameters and sequence of the steps described and/or illustrated herein are given by way of example only and can be varied as desired. For example, while the steps illustrated and/or described herein may be shown or discussed in a particular order, these steps do not necessarily need to be performed in the order illustrated or discussed. [0263] The various exemplary methods described and/or illustrated herein may also omit one or more of the steps described or illustrated herein or comprise additional steps in addition to those disclosed. Further, a step of any method as disclosed herein can be combined with any one or more steps of any other method as disclosed herein. [0264] The processor as described herein can be configured to perform one or more steps of any method disclosed herein. Alternatively, or in combination, the processor can be configured to combine one or more steps of one or more methods as disclosed herein. [0265] When a feature or element is herein referred to as being "on" another feature or element, it can be directly on the other feature or element, or intervening features and/or elements may also be present. In contrast, when a feature or element is referred to as being "directly on" another feature or element, no intervening features or elements are present. It will also be understood that when a feature or element is referred to as being "connected", "attached," or "coupled" to another feature or element, it can be directly connected, attached or coupled to the other feature or element or intervening features or elements may be present. In contrast, when a feature or element is referred to as being "directly connected", "directly attached," or "directly coupled" to another feature or element, there are no intervening features or elements present. Although described or shown with respect to one embodiment, the features and elements so described or shown can apply to other embodiments. It will also be appreciated by those of skill in the art that references to a structure or feature that is disposed of "adjacent" another feature may have portions that overlap or underlie the adjacent feature. [0266] The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. For example, as used herein, the singular forms "a", "an" and "the" are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms "comprises" and/or "comprising," when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, steps, operations, elements, and/or components but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. As used herein, the term "and/or" includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items and may be abbreviated as "/". [0267] Spatially relative terms, such as "under", "below", "lower", "over", "upper" and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that the spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. For example, if a device in the figures is inverted, elements described as "under" or "beneath" other elements or features would then be oriented "over" the other elements or features. Thus, the exemplary term "under" can encompass both an orientation of over and under. The device may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly. Similarly, the terms "upwardly", "downwardly", "vertical", "horizontal," and the like are used herein for the purpose of explanation only unless specifically indicated otherwise. [0268] Although the terms “first” and “second” may be used herein to describe various features/elements (including steps), these features/elements should not be limited by these terms, unless the context indicates otherwise. These terms may be used to distinguish one feature/element from another feature/element. Thus, a first feature/element discussed below could be termed a second feature/element, and similarly, a second feature/element discussed below could be termed a first feature/element without departing from the teachings of the present invention. [0269] Throughout this specification and the claims which follow, unless the context requires otherwise, the word “comprise” and variations such as “comprises” and “comprising” means various components can be co-jointly employed in the methods and articles (e.g., compositions and apparatuses including device and methods). For example, the term “comprising” will be understood to imply the inclusion of any stated elements or steps but not the exclusion of any other elements or steps. [0270] In general, any of the apparatuses and methods described herein should be understood to be inclusive, but all or a sub-set of the components and/or steps may alternatively be exclusive and may be expressed as “consisting of” or alternatively “consisting essentially of” the various components, steps, sub-components or sub-steps. [0271] As used herein in the specification and claims, including as used in the examples and unless otherwise expressly specified, all numbers may be read as if prefaced by the word "about" or “approximately,” even if the term does not expressly appear. The phrase “about” or “approximately” may be used when describing magnitude and/or position to indicate that the value and/or position described is within a reasonable expected range of values and/or positions. For example, a numeric value may have a value that is +/- 0.1% of the stated value (or range of values), +/- 1% of the stated value (or range of values), +/- 2% of the stated value (or range of values), +/- 5% of the stated value (or range of values), +/- 10% of the stated value (or range of values), etc. Any numerical values given herein should also be understood to include about or approximately that value, unless the context indicates otherwise. For example, if the value "10" is disclosed, then "about 10" is also disclosed. Any numerical range recited herein is intended to include all sub- ranges subsumed therein. It is also understood that when a value is disclosed that "less than or equal to" the value, "greater than or equal to the value" and possible ranges between values are also disclosed, as appropriately understood by the skilled artisan. For example, if the value "X" is disclosed the "less than or equal to X" as well as "greater than or equal to X" (e.g., where X is a numerical value) is also disclosed. It is also understood that throughout the application, data is provided in a number of different formats and that this data represents endpoints and starting points, and ranges for any combination of the data points. For example, if a particular data point “10” and a particular data point “15” are disclosed, it is understood that greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, less than or equal to, and equal to 10 and 15 are considered disclosed as well as between 10 and 15. It is also understood that each unit between two particular units are also disclosed. For example, if 10 and 15 are disclosed, then 11, 12, 13, and 14 are also disclosed. [0272] Although various illustrative embodiments are described above, any of a number of changes may be made to various embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention as described by the claims. For example, the order in which various described method steps are performed may often be changed in alternative embodiments, and in other alternative embodiments one or more method steps may be skipped altogether. Optional features of various device and system embodiments may be included in some embodiments and not in others. Therefore, the foregoing description is provided primarily for exemplary purposes and should not be interpreted to limit the scope of the invention as it is set forth in the claims. [0273] The examples and illustrations included herein show, by way of illustration and not of limitation, specific embodiments in which the subject matter may be practiced. As mentioned, other embodiments may be utilized and derived there from, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Such embodiments of the inventive subject matter may be referred to herein individually or collectively by the term “invention” merely for convenience and without intending to voluntarily limit the scope of this application to any single invention or inventive concept, if more than one is, in fact, disclosed. Thus, although specific embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, any arrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substituted for the specific embodiments shown. This disclosure is intended to cover any and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments. Combinations of the above embodiments, and other embodiments not explicitly described herein, will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description.